NOTES 



HYDROLOGY 



And the Application of its Laws to the Problems of 
Hydraulic Engineering 



DANIEL W. MEAD, Mem. Am. Soc. C. E. 



CONSULTING ENGINEER 



Professor of Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering, 
University of Wisconsin. 



1904 



LiBRasfV * GOWSRFSS 
TWd Oooies Sweived 

OCT 10 1904 

. Oooyrfeht Entry 
GLASS CL XXo. Na 
COPY B 



?L 



Copyrighted 1904 

BY 

Daniel W. Mead 






Press of 

SHEA SMITH & CO. 

Chicago 



PREFACE. 



These notes are intended to form the basis for an intro- 
ductory study of the fundamental phenomena of Hydrology, 
on which the applied science of Hydraulic Engineering should 
be based. 

The volume of literature covering many of the various 
branches of this subject is very great. Unfortunately, how- 
ever, there is no single treatise which discusses the entire 
subject, and which can be utilized as a text-book or reference 
book, to which the student may turn when investigating the 
various branches of this science. 

The lack of such a work is the reason for the preparation 
of these notes, which are intended to be used in connection 
with various publications to which references are given. 

From the nature of this subject, it is almost needless to 
state that very little new or original matter is included in 
these notes. The principles and laws of Hydrology must, of 
necessity, be based almost entirely on extended and long- 
continued observations, consequently the writer has utilized 
the observations available from a great many sources, and 
for long periods of time. As far as possible, the sources of 
the various data, cuts, formula, etc., have been acknowledged, 
some of the tables have been photographed from other pub- 
lications, in order to facilitate the publication of these notes 
(which have been prepared between June and September), 
hence the typographical work and illustrations are not en- 
tirely homogeneous, 'but the desirable data rather than the 
typographical method of its presentation has been the main 
object of this edition. 



Daniel W. Mead. 



Chicago, 111., September, 1904. 



in 



CONTENTS 



Preface Ill 

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

1. Hydrology 1 

2. Necessity for General Knowledge of Hydrology 2 

3. Failures due to Lack of Hydrological Knowledge 2 

4. Variations in Hydrological Phenomena 3 

5. Factor of Safety in Engineering Work . . 4 

6. Fundamental Laws Fixed . 4 

7. Complexity of Factors 5 

8. Purpose of Study 5 

Literature 6 

CHAPTER II. WATER. 

9. Water ." 7 

10. Density of Water 7 

11. Expansion of Water 9 

12. Weight of Water 11 

13. Units of Measurement 12 

14. Specific Gravity of Waters . 14 

15. Relation of Mineral Matter to Specific Gravity of Water 14 

16. Weight of Natural Water 15 

17. Solution 15 

18. Solution of Gases 17 

19. Condition of Mixed Solutions 19 

20. Effect of Solutions on Boiling Point 20 

21. Suspension 21 

22. Relation of River Flow to Sediment 23 

23. Density and Pressure 24 

24. Ice 24 

25. Aqueous Vapor 26 

26. Latent Heat of Water 29 

27. Relation of Water and Energy 30 

28. Water Pressure 30 

29. Effects of Atmospheric Pressure 30 

30. Physiological Relations of Water 33 

31. Agricultural Relations of Water 33 

32. Commercial Relations of Water 35 

33. Sanitary Relations of Water 35 

Literature 35 



CONTENTS— Continued . 

CHAPTER III. GENERAL HYDROGRAPHY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY. 

PAGE 

34. Circulation of Water on the Earth 37 

35. The General Relations of Land and Water 38 

36. Physiographical Features of the Earth 39 

Literature 39 

CHAPTER IV. HYDRO-METEOROLOGY. 

37. Meteorology 40 

38. Atmosphere 40 

39. Atmospheric Temperatures 40 

40. Atmospheric Pressure 41 

41. Atmospheric Circulation 41 

42. Atmospheric Moisture 42 

43. Rainfall , 43 

Literature 43 

CHAPTER V. HYDRO-GEOLOGY. 

44. Influence of Geological Structure 44 

45. General Classification of Rock Masses 44 

46. Chronological Order and Occurrence of Strata 45 

47. Local Study Desirable 45 

48. The Upper Mississippi Valley 49 

49. Archean Land 52 

50. The Potsdam Formation 52 

51. The Lower Magnesian or Oneota Limestone 57 

52. The St. Peter Sandstone 59 

53. The Trenton Age 59 

54. The Cincinnati or Hudson River Formation 61 

55. The Niagara Formation 61 

56. The Devonian Formation 61 

57. The Carboniferous Age . 61 

58. General Characteristics of the Strata 63 

59. Original Extent of Strata \ 63 

60. Deformation 66 

61 . Slope 66 

62. Waters of the Strata 69 

63. Upheaval 69 

64. Pre-Glacial Drainage 69 

65. The Glacial Period 70 

66. Work of Glaciers 72 

67. Glacial Recession 74 

68. Glacial Drainage 76 

69. Post-Glacial Drainage 77 

70. Hydrological Conditions 80 

71. General Geological Conditions 86 

Literature 87 

CHAPTER VI. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

72. Bearing of Physiography 89 

73. Climatic Subdivisions 92 

Literature 92 

VI 



CONTENTS— Continued. 

CHAPTER VII. RAINFALL OF THE UNITED STATES. 

PAGE 

74. Influence of Rainfall 93 

75. Quantity and Distribution of Rainfall 93 

76. Variations in Annual Rainfall 96 

77. Periodical Variations in Rainfall 98 

78. Relative Importance of Rainfall Data 98 

79. Intensity of Rainfall 102 

Literature 1 10 

CHAPTER VIII. THE DISPOSAL OF THE RAINFALL. 

80. Manner of Disposal in 

81. Percolation ■ ill 

82. Evaporation 114 

83. Water used by Growing Crops 114 

84. Run-Off 115 

Literature 117 

CHAPTER IX. STREAM FLOW. 

85. Laws of Stream Flow 120 

86. Daily Variation in Flow 120 

87. Extreme Variations 123 

88. Monthly Average Flow 124 

89. Depth of Rainfall and Run-Off , 138 

90. The Water Year 139 

91. The Stream Losses from Percolation 143 

92. Seepage from Artificial Channels 147 

93. Basis of Estimates of Stream Flow 147 

Literature 149 

CHAPTER X. GROUND WATER. 

94. General Principles l5l 

95. Occurrence of Ground Water l5l 

96. Laws of Flow 152 

97. Artesian Waters 1 52 

Literature 156 

CHAPTER XL HYDROGRAPHY OF SURFACE WATERS. 

98. Growth of Rivers 159 

99. Growth of Lakes 159 

100. Hydrography of the Great Lakes 162 

101. The Ocean 162 

Literature 168 

CHAPTER XII. HYDROMETRY. 

102. Flowing Water 170 

103. Vertical Velocity Curves 170 

104. Vertical Surface 'Fluctuations 173 

105. Physical Data of the St. Clair River 173 

106. Propagation of Waves 1 78 

107. Fluctuation in Current Velocity 179 

Literature 183 

VII 



CONTENTS— Continued. 

CHAPTER XIII. ICE INFLUENCES. 

PAGE 

108. Formation of Ice 186 

109. Effects of Ice 186 

110. Anchor Ice 186 

111. Effects on River Flow 187 

Literature 187 

CHAPTER XIV. CHEMISTRY OF NATURAL WATERS. 

112. General Relation 190 

113. Analyses of Rocks and Rock Waters 190 

114. Seasonal Variations 196 

115. Deep Water 196 

116. Organic Matter 196 

Literature 197 

CHAPTER XV. APPLIED HYDROLOGY. 

117. Application 199 

118. Water Supply 199 

119. Water Power 200 

120. Irrigation 200 

121. Agricultural Drainage 201 

122. Flood Protection 201 

123. Municipal Sewerage and Drainage 201 

124. Transportation and Navigation 201 

Literature 202 

TABLES. 

TABLE PAGE 

1. Density, Expansion and Weight of Pure Water 8 

2. Expansion of Water, as Determined by Various Observers 10 

3. Weight of Pure Water, according to Various Observers 12 

4. Equivalent Measures and Weights of Water 12 

5. Specific Gravities and Weights of Natural Waters 13 

6. Gases Carried in Solution by Various Springs and Artesian Wells 18 

7. Coefficients of the Solution of Gases 19 

8. Solution of Salts in Pure Water under Various Conditions 20 

9. Boiling Point of Water with Various proportions of Sodium Chloride. 20 

10. Boiling Point of Saturated Saline in Solution 21 

11. Effect of Altitude and Pressure on the Boiling Point of Water 21 

12. Subsidence of Suspended Matter in Quiescent Waters 22 

13. Discharge and Sediment of Large Rivers. 23 

14. Average Amount of Sediment in Various River Waters 23 

15. Amount of Suspended Matter in the Rio Grande River 24 

16. Reduction in Volume of Water Under Pressure 24 

17. Weight of Saturated Aqueous Vapor and Air, and Mixture of Air and 

Vapor 27 

18. Equivalent Units of Various Forms of Energy 30 

19. Mechanical Equivalents of the Heat Energy of Steam 31 

20. Pressure Equivalents 31 

VIII 



CONTENTS— Continued . 
TABLES 

TABLE PAGE 

21. Observed and Calculated Barometrical Heights 34 

22. Relation of the Elevations above Sea Level to Atmospheric Pressure. 34 

23. Geological Formations 48 

24. Porosity of Rocks 81 

25. Geological Sections of Artesian and Deep Wells in the Upper Mississ- 

ippi Valley 84 

26. Heaviest Recorded Rainfalls at Selected Stations in the United States. . 108 

27. Annual and Seasonal Averages of Rainfall for each State 109 

28. Amount of Water Required to Produce a Pound of Dry Vegetable 

Matter 115 

29. Measurement of Precipitation, Evaporation, and Duty of Water in 

Irrigation 116 

30. Relation of Mean Annual Rainfall to Maximum and Minimum Dis- 

charge of Various Rivers 1 30 

31. Average Discharge in Cubic Feet Per Second Per Square Mile of Drain- 

age Area of Various Rivers of the United States 136 

32. Average Monthly Discharges of Various Rivers arranged in order of 

Minimum Flow 137 

33. Relation of Rainfall, Run-Off, and Evaporation for various Periods on 

the Connecticut River 144 

34. Relation of Rainfall, Run-Off, and Evaporation for Various Periods on 

the Hudson River 145 

35. Relation of Rainfall, Run-Off, and Evaporation for Various Periods on 

the Genessee River 146 

36. Relation of Rainfall, Run-Off, and Evaporation for Various Periods on 

the Muskingum River 146 

37. Measurement of Seepage Waters in the South Platte River 148 

38. Physical Data of the Great Lakes 167 

39. Analysis of Geological Deposits of the Upper Mississippi Valley 191 

40. Analysis of Mineral Residue of Surface and Drift Waters 192 

41. Analysis of Mineral Residue of Water from the Potsdam Strata 193 

42. Analysis of Mineral Residue of Waters from the St. Peter Sandstone. . 194 

43. Analysis of Mineral Residue of Artesian and Other Well Waters of the 

Upper Mississippi Valley 195 



IX 



CONTENTS— Continued . 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

DIAGRAM PAGE 

1. Curve of Expansion of Pure Water 11 

2. Curve of Specific Gravity of Solutions of various Salts in Water 14 

3. The relation of Solubility and Temperature of various Salts 16 

4. Relations of Temperature in Substances of Lower Solubility 17 

5. Amount of Sediment Carried by the Mississippi River Water at New 

Orleans .' 25 

6. Relations of Weight and Temperatures of Air and Saturated Aqueous 

Vapor 26 

7. Mechanical properties of Steam 28 

8. Relations of Quantity of Heat, Temperature, and Physical Condition 

of Water 29 

9. Geological Sections across Illinois 67 

10. Variations in Annual Rainfall at Selected Stations 97 

11. Typical Annual Fluctuations in Rainfall— Eastern States 99 

12. Typical Annual Fluctuations in Rainfall — Western States 100 

13. Types of Monthly Distribution of Precipitation in the United States. . 101 

14. Rates of Maximum Rainfall, New England and Northern Atlantic States 103 

15. Rates of Maximum Rainfall, North Central States 104 

16 Rates of Maximum Rainfall, South Atlantic States 105 

17. Rates of Maximum Rainfall, Gulf States 106 

18. Curves of Probable Maximum Intensity of Rainfall 107 

19. Diagram of Stream Flow of the Hudson River 121 

20. Diagram of Stream Flow of the Susquehanna River 122 

21. Diagram of Stream Flow of the North River. . 123 

22. Diagram of Stream Flow of the Ocmulgee River 124 

23. Diagram of Stream Flow of the Bear River 125 

24. Diagram of Stream Flow of the Rio Grande River 126 

25. Daily Flow of the Passaic River 127 

26. Discharge Curves of St. Marys, St. Clair, Niagara and St. Lawrence 

Rivers 129 

27. Diagram showing the rate of Maximum Flood Discharge of certain 

American and European Rivers 135 

28. Relations between Depth of Rainfall and Run-Off for each month. . . 141 

29. Diagram showing Relation of Mean Monthly Stream Flow and Mean 

Monthly Rainfall on Rock River Watershed 142 

30. Run-Off Diagram of Hudson and Genessee Rivers 144 

31. Run-Off Diagram of Muskingum River 145 

32. Run-Off Diagram of Passaic River 147 

33. Mean Annual Variation in the Water Levels of the Great Lakes 163 

34. Variation of Annual Means in the Water Levels of the Great Lakes. . 166 

35. Monthly Mean Water Levels of the Great Lakes 165 



CONTENTS— Continued. 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 

DIAGRAM PAGE 

36 and 37. Comparison of Mean Vertical Velocity Curves 171 

38. Reproduction of Record of U. S. L. S., p. No. 5; head of St. Clair 

River 173 

39. Characteristics of St. Clair River from Ft. Gratiot Lt. -house to dis- 

charge section 176 

40. Cross-section and Curves of equal Velocity at Section Dry Dock 177 

41. Reproduction of Records of Self-Registering Gauges on St. Clair River 178 

42. Current Velocities at Section Dry Dock 179 

43. Pulsations of Current at Section Dry Dock, across Stream 180 

44. Pulsations of Current at Section Dry Dock, parallel current 181 

45. The Ice Season, Basin of the Great Lakes and surrounding territory. . 185 

46. Local variations in the ice season 189 



MAPS. 

MAP NO. PAGE 

1. General Geological Map of the United States 47 

2. Archean Land of North America 50 

3. Cambrian Age in the Upper Mississippi Valley 5l 

4. Silurian Age in the Upper Mississippi Valley 58 

5. Niagara Period in the Upper Mississippi Valley 60 

6. Carboniferous Period in the Upper Mississippi Valley 62 

7. General Geological Map of the Upper Mississippi Valley 65 

8. Mean axes of formation and dip of strata in the Upper Mississippi 

Valley 68 

9. First Glacial Epoch in the Upper Mississippi Valley 71 

10. Second Glacial Epoch in the Upper Mississippi Valley 73 

11. Recession of the Glaciers •. 75 

12. Pleistocene Map of the United States 83 

13. Hypsometric Map of the United States 91 

14. Map showing the Annual Distribution of Rainfall 95 

15. Map of Annual Distribution of Evaporation in the United States 113 

16. Map of Annual Distribution of Run-Off in the United States 119 

17. Approximate Map of Artesian Areas of the United States 155 

18. River Systems of the United States 161 

19. Hydrographic Map of the St. Clair River 175 



XI 



HYDROLOGY. 

CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

i. Hydrology. — The fundamental basis of all hydraulic 
engineering problems is Hydrology — the science of water. 
Hydrology in its broadest extent treats of the properties, laws 
and phenomena of water, of its physical, chemical and physi- 
ological relations, of its distribution and occurrence over the 
earth's surface and within the geological strata, and of its 
sanitary, agricultural and commercial relations. 

The subject may be considered under several heads : 

First. Descriptive Hydrography, treats of the oceans, 
lakes, rivers, and other waters, with special reference to their 
relations to sanitation and their use for agriculture, naviga- 
tion and commerce. 

Second. Hydrogeology, treats of the geology of water, 
and includes that part of geological science which has to do 
with the relation of water occurring on or within the structure 
of the earth, and its relations to the earth's structure. 

Third. Hydrometeorology, treats of the science of me- 
teorology, with special relation to the water in the atmos- 
phere, its precipitation and evaporation, and the relations of 
these factors to the structural condition of the earth's surface. 

Fourth. Hydrometry, treats of the measurement of 
waters. 

Fifth. Hydromechanics, is that branch of mechanics 
which treats of the laws of equilibrium and motion of water or 
other fluids. 

Sixth. Hydraulic Engineering, includes those branches 
of engineering practice which have to do with the design and 
construction of structures and works for the utilization and 
control of water for the use and benefit of mankind. 



2 Introduction 

2. Necessity for General Knowledge of Hydrology. — 

At least a limited understanding of hydrological principles is 
prerequisite to the successful solution of the simplest prob- 
lems in hydraulic engineering. For the purpose of investi- 
gating the more complicated problems a more detailed knowl- 
edge of this science is essential, and the more extended the 
knowledge of this subject, the greater the assurance of the 
successful solution of all such problems. 

A knowledge of construction, which, for hydraulic en- 
gineering purposes, must include a knowledge of hydrome- 
chanics, has been sometimes considered all that is essential 
for the success of hydraulic works. 

Hydrography, hydrogeology, and hydrometeorology have 
been frequently neglected, and the result has often been sta- 
ble construction but practical failure in the ultimate object 
which it was intended to achieve. 

Each essential feature in the design of any engineering 
work must be understood, and the importance of each feature 
must be carefully considered and thoroughly appreciated in 
order to achieve the greatest measure of success. 

3. Failures Due to Lack of Hydrological Knowledge. — 
Failures more or less serious have resulted, from the neglect 
to investigate the primary hydrological conditions, and to ap- 
preciate the importance of fundamental hydrological knowl- 
edge, in almost every branch of hydraulic engineering. Water 
power installations have been built without sufficient knowl- 
edge of the regime of the stream on which their success de- 
pended, with resulting failures more or less serious. 

Public water supply systems have been designed and 
constructed to utilize supplies of water which have later been 
found much too limited for the purpose for which they were 
intended to be utilized, and expensive changes in the works 
have thus been made necessary; or such works have been 
constructed in locations where the supplies have afterwards 
been found to be polluted and undesirable, with similar ex- 
pensive results. 

Cities have been founded in needlessly exposed positions, 
and left unprotected, or so poorly protected as to be subject to 



Variation in Hydrological Phenomena 3 

great financial damage and loss of life from floods.* Exten- 
sive damages have also been caused to farm and agricultural 
communities from similar causes. 

Great losses have been sustained, property ruined, and 
unsanitary conditions created by the overflow of storm water 
from sewers and drains of improper design. Dams and reser- 
voirs have washed out because of the insufficient provision 
of spillways, or insufficient knowledge of the underlying geo- 
logical strata and of its improper protection.** Bridges have 
been destroyed, and adjacent property flooded and damaged 
because of the provision of insufficient waterways. Large 
and needless expenditures have been made for irrigation pro- 
jects, where insufficient supplies of water were obtainable. 
Many of these unfortunate results have been due to the lack 
of investigation, and of a thorough understanding of the fun- 
damental knowledge, which it is the province of hydrology to 
discuss. 

4. Variations in Hydrological Phenomena. — Much of the 
fundamental data which must be considered in these problems 
is exceedingly variable, much more so, in fact, than the ordi- 
nary observer would suspect. It is a common idea that taking 
the season through, the average rainfall is practically the same 
for each year, and the cursory observer is apt to draw similar 
conclusions in regard to the annual flow of streams. Ex- 
tended observations will show that such is not the case, and 
that these phenomena vary almost as widely as many of the 
meteoric phenomena, on which to a considerable extent, they 
depend. 

The uncertainty of many meteoric phenomena is pro- 
verbial. The great variation in the character of the season 
throughout a period of years is very marked. The irregularity 
in the occurrence of rain and snow, of storms and sunshine, is 

* Report on the Protection of the City of Elmira, N. Y., against Floods. 
By F. Collingwood. Report Feb. 12th, 1890. Prevention of Floods in Stoney 
Brook. Boston City Document, No. 159, p. 89. The Lesson of Galveston. W. 
J. McGee. Nat. Geo. Mag., Oct., 1900. Destructive Flood in the U. S. in 1903. 
E. C. Murphy. Water Supply Paper No. 96. 

** Johnstown Flood. See Eng. News, June 1st, 8th, 15th and 22nd, July 
13th and August 17th, 1889. The Austin Dam. Prof. T. U. Taylor. Water 
Supply Paper No. 40. 



4 Introduction 

a matter of common observation. The observer is therefore 
naturally led to expect that other phenomena, dependent 
largely or partially on meteoric conditions will be subject to 
a similar variation, and be equally uncertain. 

A few casual observations, in which these great varia- 
tions are seen, might lead to the belief that meteoric phenom- 
ena follow no law, or at least follow laws so complicated and 
involved as to be hopelessly obscure. They might also lead 
the observer to the conclusion that no ascertainable relation 
existed between the rainfall and stream flow, or between other 
inter-dependent hydrological phenomena. 

Accurate and continuous observations, however, show 
that while great variations exist, they are limited in character 
and extent, and that the mutual relations between the various 
factors of hydrology and meteorology, while complicated, are 
nevertheless fixed, and by extended observation can be ren- 
dered sufficiently determinate to enable valuable deductions 
to be based on them. 

5. Factors of Safety in Engineering Work. — In all en- 
gineering work the lack of exact information, as to the actual 
conditions which will prevail, and which will influence the 
character and usefulness of a structure during its life, requires 
that, in order to provide for unforeseen contingencies, a factor 
of safety shall be used, and the structure is made much 
stronger than the average condition would apparently make 
necessary. If in many hydraulic problems a similar factor 
were considered, it would be seen that the probable inaccura- 
cies are much less than in many other engineering works, and 
although there is much chance for improved designs, and 
much need of extended observations and research, yet the 
applied science of hydraulic engineering is, in exactness, fully 
abreast with most other branches of engineering. 

6. Fundamental Laws Fixed. — While the fundamental 
laws of hydrology are unchanging, the factors which control 
its phenomena are so numerous that they result in wide varia- 
tions in the relation of similar phenomena in different locali- 
ties. As with all physical phenomena, similar causes, when 
acting under similar conditions, produce similar results, but 



Purpose of Study 5 

the causes, and the varying conditions under which they act, 
must be carefully investigated and thoroughly understood, in 
order that the result may be rightly anticipated. With the 
great variation in the circumstance of occurrence, it is there- 
fore unsafe to apply data obtained from one locality, under 
one set of conditions, without modifications, to an entirely 
different locality -with radically different conditions, and ex- 
pect similar results. 

7. Complexity of Factors. — The geological, topograph- 
ical and meteorological conditions often vary, to a consider- 
able extent, with every degree of latitude or longitude, or 
even with less extended differences in locality, and each loca- 
tion has, therefore, to a limited extent, laws unto itself, which 
must be investigated and determined before correct conclu- 
sions can be drawn. There are, however, geographical limits, 
where similar physiographical and climatic conditions prevail, 
and where hydrological conditions are so similar that conclu- 
sions based on the data of one locality, can be applied, with 
only slight modifications, to other localities within such lim- 
its. If this were not the case, a science of hydrology would 
be impossible. 

8. Purpose of Study. — It is particularly to the study of 
these geographical limits, as well as to the study of the laws 
and relations of hydrological phenomena, that attention 
should be given. For this reason it is the purpose of these 
notes to outline, 

First. The study of general physiographic features of the 
earth, and their general hydrographic relations. 

Second. The study, in a more specific way, of the physio- 
graphical and hydrological conditions of the United States. 
And, 

Third. The study, in greater detail, of the hydrology of 
certain localities, where certain important laws are perhaps 
best exemplified. 

It is the further purpose of these notes to emphasize more 
particularly the most desirable lines for hydrological study, 
and the necessary or desirable direction and extent of hydro- 
logical investigations, and to give such references as shall in- 



6 Introduction 

dicate the work which has been already done in this field, and 
the sources from which available information and detailed 
data may be obtained. 

LITERATURE. 

The most important literature relating to Hydrology will be found in the 
publications of the United States Geological Survey. It is contained in the 
Annual Reports, Bulletins, Professional Papers and Water Supply and Irriga- 
tion Papers; also in the Annual Reports of the Reclamation Service. 

The Bulletins and Monthly Weather Review of the United States Weather 
Bureau also contain much of value on this subject. Much special information 
is also contained in the Annual Reports of the Chief Engineer of the U. S. 
Army, The Annual Reports of the Mississippi River Commission, and in 
numerous special Reports to Congress. 

Detailed reference to the principal publications will be found under the 
special chapter to which the subject matter of these publications more espe- 
cially refer. 



CHAPTER II. 

WATER. 

9. Water. — Water was considered to be an element or 
primary form of matter until about 1783, when the fact of its 
composition was determined by the experiments of Watt, 
Cavendish and Lavoisier.* 

Water occurs in nature in solid, liquid and gaseous form, 
within a range of ordinarily observed temperatures. There 
are four critical temperatures for water, viz.: 

32 F., or o° C, at which pure water freezes or solidifies 
under one atmosphere pressure. 

39.2 F., or 4 C, which is the approximate point of maxi- 
mum density of pure water. 

62 F., or 16.67° C., which is the British Standard temper- 
ature. 

212 F., or ioo° C, which is the boiling point of pure water 
under one atmosphere pressure. 

62° F. is the temperature of water used as a basis in cal- 
culating the specific gravity of bodies in England and Amer- 
ica. 

Water is never found in nature in a chemically pure state 
on account of its high solving and transporting properties, but 
always contains other forms of matter, to a greater or less de- 
gree, either in a state of solution or suspension. 

10. Density of Water. — The density of water, or its rela- 
tive weight and volume, depends on its purity and tempera- 
ture. 

The relative density, expansion and weight of water at 
various temperatures is shown in Table 1. 

* See James Watt and the Discovery of the Composition of Water, by Prof. 
T. E. Thorpe. Sci. Am. Sup. No. 1179, Aug. 6th, 1898. 



Water 







TABLE 1. 






TABLE OF DENSITY, EXPANSION AND WEIGHT OF PURE WATER 






AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES. 




TEMPERATURE 


RELATIVE 


WEIGHT IN POUNDS 


c 


F. 


VOLUME 


DENSITY 


PER 
CUBIC FOOT 


PER 
U. S. GALLON 


10 


14.0 


1.00185 


.998146 


62.279 


^.8.3357 
■* 8.3275 


9 


15.8 


1.00163 


.998371 


62.293 < 


8 


17.6 


1.00137 


.998628 


62.310 


8.3297 


7 


19.4 


1.00114 


.998865 


62.324 


8.3316 


6 


21.2 


1.00092 


.999082 


62.338 


8.3333 


5 


23.0 


1.00070 


.999302 


62.352 


8.3353 


4 


24.8 


1.00056 


.999437 


62.360 


8.3364 


3 


26.6 


1.00042 


.999577 


62.369 


8.3375 


2 


28.4 


1.00031 


.999692 


62.376 


8.3385 


1 


30.2 


1.00021 


.999786 


62.382 


8.3394 





32. 


1.00012 


.999877 


62.389 


8.3401 


1 


33.8 


1.00007 


.999930 


62.392 


8.3405 


2 


35.6 


1.00003 


.999969 


62.394 


8.3407 


3 


37.4 


1.00001 


.999992 


62.395 


8.3409 


4 


39.2 


1.00000 


1.000000 


62.396 


8.3411 


5 


41. 


1.00001 


.999994 


62.397 


8.3409 


6 


42.8 


1.00003 


.999973 


62.394 


8.3407 


7 


44.6 


1.00006 


.999939 


62.393 


8.3406 


8 


46.4 


1.00011 


.999890 


62.389 


8.3402 


9 


48.2 


1.00017 


.999829 


62.384 


8.3399 


10 


50. 


1.00025 


.999753 


62.380 


8.3390 


11 


51.8 


1.00034 


.999664 


62.375 


8.3383 


12 


53.6 


1.00044 


.999562 


62.368 


8.3374 


13 


55.4 


1.00055 


.999449 


62.362 


8.3365 


14 


57.2 


1.00068 


.999322 


62.354 


8.3354 


15 


59. 


1.00082 


.999183 


62.345 


8.3342 


16 


60.8 


1.00097 


.999032 


62.336 


8.3330 


16.67 


62. 


1.001078 


.9989232 


62.329 


8.3322 


17 


62.6 


1.00113 


.998869 


62.326 


8.3317 


18 


64.4 


1.00131 


.998695 


62.315 


8.3302 


19 


66.2 


1.00149 


.998509 


62.304 


8.3287 


20 


68. 


1.00169 


.998312 


62.291 


8.3270 


21 


69.8 


1.00190 


.998104 


62.278 


8.3253 


22 


71.6 


, 1.00212 


.997886 


62.265 


8.3234 


23 


73.4 


1.00235 


.997657 


62.250 


8.3215 


24 


75.2 


1.00259 


.997419 


62.235 


8.3196 


25 


77. 


1.00284 


.997170 


62.220 


8.3174 


26 


78.8 


1.00310 


.996912 


62.204 


8.3153 


27 


80.6 


1.00337 


.996664 


62.186 


8.3130 


28 


82.4 


1.00365 


.996367 


62.169 


8.3107 


29 


84.2 


1.00393 


.996082 


62.151 


8.3083 


30 


86. 


1.00423 


.995786 


62.132 


8.3058 


35 


95. 


1.00583 


.994170 


62.032 


8.2933 


40 


104. 


1.00765 


.99235 


61.919 


8.2773 


45 


113. 


1.00967 


.99034 


61.792 


8.2605 


50 


122. 


1.01189 


.98811 


61.654 


8.2419 


55 


131. 


1.01423 


.98578 


61.508 


8.2224 


60 


140. 


1.01671 


.98329 


61.353 


8.2017 


65 


149. 


1.01943 


.98057 


61.183 


8.1790 


70 


158. 


1.02237 


.97763 


61.000 


8.1544. 


75 


167. 


1.02547 


.97453 


60.807 


8.1287 


80 


176. 


1.02871 


.97129 


60.605 


8.1016 


85 


185. 


1.03202 


.96798 


60.398 


8.0740 


90 


194. 


1.03552 


.96448 


60.180 


8.0448 


95 


203. 


1.03922 


.96078 


59.949 


8.0141 


100 


212. 


1.04311 


.95689 


59.705 


7.8981 


120 


248. 


1.05992 


.94008 


58.657 


7.8412 


140 


284. 


1.07949 


.92051 


57.436 


7.6781 


160 


320. 


1.10149 


.89851 


56.063 


7.4i>46 


180 


356. 


1.12678 


.87322 


54.485 


7.8838 


200 


392. 


1.15899 


.84101 


52.476 


7.0149 



Expansion of Water 9 

This table is partially derived from Kopp's Table, with 
interpolations by Oldberg.* The figures for density and ex- 
pansion below zero ° C. are from determinations by M. Des- 
pretz, and those at temperatures above the boiling point are 
from experiments by Hirn. 

11. Expansion of Water. — The determinations of the ex- 
pansion of water at various temperatures by various observers 
is given in Table 2, which is taken from a paper by Alex Mor- 
ton.** 

The differences in these observations are due to the per- 
sonal errors to which all such observations are subject. 

Morton offers a formula, based on the mean value of 
these various determinations (See Column eleven, Table 2), 
from which formula Column twelve in this table is calculated. 

This formula, arranged for Fah. degrees, is as follows: 
a t + b t 2 + c t 4 
V= 

T=the absolute temperature measured from 461.2° F. 
below o° F. 

t=the temperature measured from that of maximum 
density 39.2 F. 

V=the volume of water — the volume at maximum den- 
sity being equal to 1.0000. 
Constants. 

a=o.2863 

b— °-57 2 6 
c=o.ooooo269i3 

The expansion of water, and the relative weights of one 
cubic foot at various temperatures, based on this formula, are 
shown graphically in Diagram I. 

* See Weights and Measures, Oldberg, page 163 ; also the Density of 
Water at different temperatures, A. F. Nagle; Vol. 13, Trans. Am. Soc. M. E., 
page 396. 

** On the Expansion of Water, Alex. Morton. Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag., 
p. 436, Vol. 7. 



10 



«-5 



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Weight of Water 



n 



DIAGRAM I. 

EXPANSION CURVE Or PURE WATER 



62. 


3 62. 

1 


WEIGHT OF 

61. 60. 
.i.i. 


A i 

53. 
1 


3UB 


IC FOOT OF PURE. WATER. 

IN POUNDS. 

TO. 57. 56. 55. 54. 59. 

1,1.1.1.1.1. 




Vt£- 






















































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160* 



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20' 



10° 



io: 



° 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 105 109 110 III 112 115 114 115 116 

PERCENTAGE OF EXPANSION. 

12. Weight of Water.— The determination of the weight 
of water is also subject to similar errors of observation. 

Determination of the weight of pure water by various 
observers are shown in Table 3. 

The maximum variation in these weights is inconsider- 
able, and usually of little practical importance, being only 
about .05 of one per cent. 



12 



Water 



For ordinary hydraulic computations the small impor- 
tance of such difrerences becomes more obvious when we 
consider the great variation in the weight of water, as ordi- 
narily encountered by the engineer, and which is caused by 
matter in solution and suspension. These factors are often 
unknown and usually neglected in actual practice. Variations 
of one or two per cent, are usually of little importance in 
practical work, but may become so under some conditions. 

TABLE 3. 



WEIGHTS OF WATER, ACCORDING TO VARIOUS OBSERVERS. 


Authority 


Weight of a cubic 

inch at 62° Fah. 

in grains 


Weight per cubic 
ft. at 62° Fah. 


Weight per cubic 
ft. at 39°. 2 Fah. 


W. J. M. Rankin 


252.595 


62.355 


62.425 


Act of Parliament 


225.458 


62.322 


62.388 


H. J. Cheney 


252.286 


62.279 


62.440 


English Board of Trade 




62.2786 


62.348 


F. A. P. Barnard * 


252.488 


62.329 


62.396 



13. Units of - Measurement. — Water may be measured 
in many units. The equivalents of the principal ones which 
are liable to be encountered or used in the practice of the en- 
gineer, are given in Table 4. 



EQUIVALENT MEASURES AND WEIGHTS OF WATER 
AT 4° CENTIGRADE— 39.2° FAHRENHEIT. 


u. s. 

Gallons 


Imperial 
Gallons 


Liters 


Cubic 
Meters 


Pounds 


Cubic 
Feet 


Cubic 
Inches 


Circular 

Inch 

1 Foot 

Long 


1 


.83321 


3.7853 


.0037853 


8.34112 


.13368 


231 


24.5096 


1.20017 


1 


4.54303 


.004543 


10.0108 


.160439 


277.274 


29.4116 


.264179 


.22012 


1 


.001 


2.20355 


.035316 


61.0254 


6.4754 


264.179 


220.117 


1000 


1 


2203.55 


35.31563 


61025.4 


6475.44 


.119888 


.099892 


.453813 


.0004538 


1 


.0160266 


27.694 


2.9411 


7.48055 


6.23287 


28.3161 


.0283161 


62.3961 


1 


1728 


183.346 


.00435i9 


.003607 


.0163866 


.0000164 


.0361089 


.0006787 


1 


.10613 


.0408 


.034 


.1544306 


.0001544 


.340008 


.005454 


9.4224 


1 



* F. A. P. Barnard, "The Metric System," Boston, 1879, p. 174. 



Specific Gravity of Natural Waters 



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14 



Water 



14. Specific Gravity of Waters. — As water takes into 
solution various substances with which it comes in contact, or 
when it carries in suspension large quantities of foreign mat- 
ter, its relative weight is materially increased. 

In Table 5 are given the relative specific gravities and 
weights of various natural waters. 

15. Relation of Mineral Matter to Specific Gravity of 
Water. — The effect of varying amounts of mineral matter on 
the specific gravity of water is graphically shown in Diagram 



2/ 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY Or SOLUTIONS. 



180 




10 eo 30 40 50 60 

PERCENTAGE OF SALT IN SOLUTION 



* R. K. Mead, Chemists' Pocket Manual. 



Solution 1 5 

These curves are each drawn for a particular tempera- 
ture, but the temperature is not uniform for all curves. 

The temperature for which each curve is drawn is as 
follows : 

Calcium nitrate 17.5 C. 

Calcium chloride 18.3 C. 

Chrome alum I 7-5° C. 

Ferrous sulphate 15. C. 

Magnesium chloride 24. C. 

Potassium carbonate 15. C. 

Sodium carbonate 23. C. 

Sodium chloride 15. C. 

Sodium nitrate 25.2 C. 

16. Weight of Natural Water. — From Table 5, it will 
be noted that, under ordinary conditions, the waters of springs 
and rivers will weigh between 62.3 and 62.5 lbs. per cubic 
foot, depending upon the amount of impurities and on the 
temperature of the water. The waters of some mineral 
springs are found to weigh as high as 63.3 lbs. per cubic foot, 
sea water reaches 64 lbs. per cubic foot, and the water of the 
Dead Sea reaches 73 lbs. per cubic foot. For ordinary com- 
putations, therefore, 62.4 or 62.5 lbs. per cubic foot may be 
used. 62.5 is sometimes a convenient number for a compu- 
tation as it equals 1000 ounces avoirdupois. 

17. Solution. — All natural waters however free from 
visible impurities, contain in solution more or less of the vari- 
ous substances which they have encountered in their natural 
history, and which, under ordinary circumstances, may be 
solid, liquid, or gaseous.* 

The laws governing the solution of solids are as follows : 
First, the quantity of a solid which may be dis- 
solved by a liquid is fixed and limited, and is 
always the same at the same temperature. 
Second, a liquid saturated by the solution of one 

solid is capable of dissolving another. 
Third, the solubility of a solid increases with the 
temperature. 

* See Water Supply. William Ripley Nichols. Introductory Chapter, 
p. 16. 



i6 



Water 



There are, however, some exceptions to the third law, as 
will be noted by reference to Diagram 4. 

Diagram 3 and Diagram 4 are graphical representation of 
the relative solubility of various salts at different temperatures. 

DIAGRAM 3. 

CURVES Or SOLUBILITY 



DEGREES 



FAHRENHEIT 



50° 66° 



66° »04* \ZT 140 



176' 194* Z 12° 




10° £0° 50 40* 50* €0* 7a* 60* 30* »00* 

DEGREES CENTIGRADE. 



Solution of Gases 
DIAGRAM 4. 

CURVES OP SOLUBILITY 

OP 

SLIGHTLY SOLUBLE SALTS. 



17 



DEGPEE5 

6d* 36* 104 



FAHRENHEIT. 

122° 140° 153* 176* 



212 1 




I0O" 



DEGREES CENTIGRADE. 

18. Solution of Gases. — The solution of gases, where no 
chemical reaction takes place, is subject to the following laws : 
First, at a given temperature and pressure a liquid 
will always dissolve the same quantity of gas. 
Second, the volume of gas dissolved is in propor- 
tion to the atmospheric pressure. 
Third, Mixed gases are dissolved as though each 
gas were separate. 



18 



Water 



Rain water always contains in solution a certain amount 
of the natural gases of the atmosphere, which are, however, 
dissolved, not in proportion to their occurrence in the atmos- 
phere, but more nearly to the solubilities of the gases. 

In artesian water oxygen is seldom present. Spring and 
ground waters are usually deficient in oxygen. 

Deep waters and waters of springs which have been under 
pressure carry in solution larger percentages of carbonic acid 
gas than normal waters. 

TABLE 6. 



GASES CARRIED IN SOLUTIOIv 


BY VARIOUS SPRING AND ARTESIAN 


WATERS, CUBIC INCHES PER GALLON. 






t 


a 








bo 

>> 


8 


P o 

*< 


■gSg 


Authority 




O 


fc 


o 


>> 




Albany, N. Y. (Artesian Well) 






184.00 




Wm. Mead 


Balston, N. Y. (Lithia Spring) 






426.11 




F. Chandler 


Avon, N. Y. (Sulphur Spring) 


.97 


3.88 


22.04 


27.63 


H. M. Baker 


Saratoga,N.Y.(ColumbiaSpg.) 






272.06 




John H. Steele 


Bedford, Va. (Spring) 


1.32 


3.33 


6.98 




Wm. Gilham 


Salt Sulphur Spring, W. Va. 






34.56 


19.12 


D. Stuart 


Athens, Ga. (Helicon Spring) 


3.12 


10.98 


5.97 




H. C. White 


Talladega Spring, Alabama 








82.00 


W. C. Stubbs 


Blue Lick Spring, Ky. 






60.11 


10.24 


J.F.Judge&A.Fennel 


Versailles, 111. (Magnetic Spg.) 






24.00 




G. A. Mariner 


Alpena, Mich. ( M Well) 




.24 


8.40 


35.36 


S. P. Driffield 


Lansing, Mich. " " 






235.55 




Dr. Jennings 


Ems. Germany, (Springs) 






117.81 






Carlsbad, Bohemia (Springs) 






134.98 







The quantity of dissolved gases in a water affords, to 

some extent, a measure of its natural history, and also of its 

sanitary condition. 

The following is the analysis of the Thames River, England, by Professor 
Miller, and shows the cubic centimeters of dissolved gases per litre.* 



Location 


Carbonic Acid Gas 


Oxygen 


Nitrogen 


Kingston 


30.3 

45.2 
55.6 
48.3 


7.4 
4.1 
1.5 

.25 
.25 


15 

15.1 

16.2 

15.4 

14.5 


Hammersmith .... 


Somerset House 


Greenwich 

Woolwich 



♦See Parkes Manual of Practical Hygiene. Vol. 1, P. 7*. 



Solution of Gases 



19 



The above shows how the dissolved gases vary as the waters become contam- 
inated, the carbonic acid gas increasing, the oxygen diminishing, the nitrogen 
remaining stationary. The same result is seen in the following analysis of the 
dissolved oxygen of the Seine above and below Paris, given in cubic centimeters 
per litre.* 

Corbeil (above Paris) 9. 32 

Antenil (below the city, but above the sewer outlets) 5.99 

Epinay, (below all sewers) 1 .05 

Point de Passy, (47 kilometers from last place named)... . 6. 12 

Mantes (31 kilometers from above) 8.96 

Verccon, (41 kilometers from above) 10.40 

The percentages of solution of various gases at various 
temperatures, as determined by Bunsen and Carius, is shown 
in Table 7. 



TABLE 7. 



Tempera- 
ture. 


Oxygen. 


Nitrogen, 


Air. 


Carbonic 
Acid. 


Hydrogen. 


Ammonia. 





0*04114 


0-02035 


0*02471 


17967 


0*01930 


1049*6 


J 


0*04007 


0-01981 


0-02406 


1-7207 




IO208 


2 


0*03907 


0*01932 


0-02345 


1*6481 




993*3 


3 


0*03810 


0*01884 


0*02287 


1*5787 




967-0 


4 


0*03717 


0*01838 


O-O2237 


I-5I26 




941-9 


5 


0-03628 


0*01794 


0*02I79 


1 '4497 




9179 


6 


0*03544 


0*01752 


0-02I28 


i'390l 




895-0 


7 


0*03465 


0-01713 


0*02o8o 


i'3339 




873*1 


8 


0*03389 


0-01675 


0*02034 


1-2809 




852-1 


9 


0-033I7 


0-01640 


COI992 


1-2311 




832-0 


10 


0*03250 


0*01607 


0*01953 


1-1847 




812-8 


11 


0*03189 


0*01577 


o*oigi6 


1-1416 




794"3 


12 


0*03133 


0*01549 


0*01882 


i*ioi8 




7763 


13 


0*03082 


0*01523 


0-01851 


! -0653 




7596 


M 


0-03034 


0*OI500 


0-01822 


1-0321 




743' 1 


15 


0*02989 


0*01478 


0*01795 


I -0020 


»» 


727-2 


16 


0*02949 


0*01458 


0-01771 


1-9753 




711*8 


17 


0*02914 


0*01441 


0*01750 


0*9519 


»» 


696-9 


18 


0*02884 


5*01426 


001732 


0-9319 




682*3 


19 


0-02858 


0*01413 


0*01717 


0*9150 


»» 


668 -o 


20 


0*02838 


COI403 


0*01704 


0*9014 


•» 


654*0 



19. Condition of Mixed Solutions. — The presence of cer- 
tain substances in solution sometimes modify the solving qual- 
ities of a liquid in regard to other substances. Carbonic acid 
gas has a marked action in increasing the solubility of certain 
salts, as shown by Table 8. 



♦See Nichols' Water Supply, P. 61. 



20 



Water 



TABLE 8. 



PER CENT. OF SOLUBILITY OF SALTS IN WATERS 
UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS. 




Pure 
Water, 
at 32° P. 


Carbonated 
Water 


Pure 

Water, 

at 212° P. 


Insoluble 
at 


Carbonate of Lime 

Sulphate of Lime 

Carbonate of Magnesia 

Phosphate of Lime 

Oxide of Iron 


.0016 

.2 

.0182 


.67 

•67 
.075 


.0016 

.22 

.0104 


302° F. 
302° F. 

212° F. 

212° F. 



20. Effects of Solution on Boiling Point. — The solution of 
a salt affects the boiling point of the water in which it is con- 
tained. This increases with the degree of saturation. The 
freezing temperature, and temperature of maximum density 
also change with the degree of saturation. 



TABLE 9. 



BOILING POINT OF WATER WITH VARIOUS PROPORTIONS OF 
SODIUM CHLORIDE IN SOLUTION. 




Degrees F. 


Degrees C. 


Pure Water, 


212 


100 


with 5 per cent. Na. CI. 


214.7 


101.5 


10 ■■ " 


217.4 


103. 


IS 


220.3 


104.6 


20 •■ " 


223.3 


106.3 


25 " " 


226.2 


107.9 



The boiling point of various saturated solutions as de- 
termined by M. LeGrand, is shown in Table io. 



Boiling Point 



21 



TABLE IO. 

Boiling Point of Saturated Saline Solutions 



Name of salt 


Weight of salt 
per 100 of water. 


Boiling-point. 
Degrees C. 


Sodium chloride 

Potassium chloride 

Calcium chloride ........ 

Ammonium chloride 

Barium chloride 

Strontium chloride 

Sodium nitrate . 

Ammonium nitrate 

Calcium nitrate ........ 

Sodium carbonate 

Potassium carbonate . 

Sodium phosphate 

Potassium chlorate 


4 l-2 

59*4 

325-0 

88-g 

6o*i 

"7*5 

224*8 

2-0 

362-0 

48*5 
205-0 

II2-6 

61-5 


108*4 
108-3 
179-5 
114-2 
104-4 
117-8 
I2I-0 

180-0 
151-0 
104-6 
1350 
106-6 
104-2 



The boiling point of water, as well as the other critical 
temperatures, varies with the barometric pressure, increasing 
as the pressure increases, and decreasing as the pressure de- 
creases. 

Table 11 shows the boiling point of pure water corre- 
sponding to barometric pressure and altitude above sea level. 

TABLE I I. 



BOILING-POINT OF WATER CORRESPONDING TO BAROMETRIC 




PRESSURE AND ALTITUDE ABOVE THE SEA-LEVEL. 




Boiling-point 


Barometer 


Altitude 
Feet 


Boiling-point 


Barometer 


Altitude 
Feet 


















F\ 


c°. 


Inches 


mm. 




F°. 


C°. 


Inches 


mm. 




184 


84.4 


16.79 


426.5 


15221 


200 


93.3 


23.59 


599.2 


6304 


185 


85.0 


17.16 


436.0 


14649 


201 


93.8 


24.08 


611.6 


5764 


186 


85.5 


17.54 


445.5 


14075 


202 


94.4 


24.58 


624.3 


5225 


187 


86 1 


17.93 


455.4 


13498 


203 


95.0 


25.08 


637.0 


4697 


188 


86.6 


18.32 


465.3 


12934 


204 


95.5 


25.59 


650.0 


4169 


189 


87.2 


18.72 


475.6 


12367 


205 


96.1 


26.11 


663.2 


3642 


190 


87.7 


19.13 


486.0 


11799 


206 


96.6 


26.64 


676.7 


3115 


191 


88.3 


19.54 


496.3 


11243 


207 


97.2 


27.18 


690.4 


2589 


192 


88.8 


19.96 


507.0 


10685 


208 


97.7 


27.73 


704.3 


2063 


193 


89.4 


20.39 


517.9 


10127 


209 


98.3 


28.29 


718.6 


1539 


194 


90.0 


20.82 


528.8 


9579 


210 


98.8 


28.85 


752.8 


1025 


195 


90.5 


21.26 


540.0 


9031 


211 


99.4 


29.42 


747.3 


512 


196 


91.1 


21.71 


551.3 


8481 


212 


100.0 


30.0 


762.0 


sea 


197 


91.6 


22.17 


563.1 


7932 


below 


sea 


level 




level 


198 


92.2 


22.64 


575.0 


7381 


213 


100.5 


30.59 


777.0 


-512 


199 


92.7 


23 . 1 1 


587.0 


6843 













22 



Water 



21. Suspension. — Suspension differs materially from solu- 
tion. In suspension, the substance still retains its physical 
identity, although it may be held in an exceedingly finely 
divided state, and thus be carried in suspension for indefinite 
periods. 

Water at rest soon deposits the heavier particles carried 
in suspension, but when in motion, is capable of transporting 
large amounts of material. This fact is well shown by Table 
12, which is from experiments on different types of Ohio River 
water at Cincinnati.* 

TABLE 12. 

Subsidence of Suspended Matter in Quiescent Waters 



Periods of Subsidence— Hours. 



Suspended Matter in Parts 
Per Million. 



Type I. 



Type II. 



Per Cent Removed. 



Type I. 



Type II. 





1 
3 
6 
12 
24 
48 
72 



2333 
932 
653 
396 
350 
300 
259 
210 
186 



205 
81 
80 
79 
73 
61 
44 
36 
31 





60 
72 
83 
85 
87 
89 
91 
*92 




55 
56 
56 
58 
63 
67 
70 
72 



In this table Type I is said to be characteristic of the Ohio 
River water during the earlier stages of a heavy freshet, when 
the water carries in suspension large quantities of silt and 
fairly coarse clay. 

Type 2 is characteristic of the water during the latter 
stages of the rise, when the matter in suspension is finer. 

The average amount of sediment carried in suspension 
by large rivers is shown in Table 13.** 



* Report on Water Purification, Cincinnati, 1899, page 107. 

**C. C. Babb, Science, 1893, Vol. XXI, p. 343; also Eng. News, 1893, 



p. 109. 



Suspension 
TABLE 13. 



23 



DISCHARGE AND SEDIMENT OF LARGE RIVERS. 


River 


Drainage 

area, 

square 

miles 


Mean 

annual 

discharge, 

second 

feet 


SEDIMENT 


Total 

annual 

tons 


Ratio 

by 
weight 


Depth 

over 

drainage 

area, in. 


Potomac 


11,043 

1,214,000 

30,000 

150,000 

34,800 

27,100 

320,300 

1,100,000 

125,000 


20,160 

610,000 

1,700 

150,000 

65,850 

62,200 

315,200 

113,000 

475,000 


5,557,250 

406,250,000 

3,830,000 

14,782,500 

36,000,000 

67,000,000 

108,000,000 

54,000,000 

291,430,000 


1:3575 

1:1500 

1:291 

1:10,000 

1:1775 

1:900 

1 :2880 

1 :2050 

1:1610 


.00433 
.002S3 
.00110 
.00085 
.01071 
.01139 
.00354 
.00042 
.02005 


Mississippi 

Fio Grande 

Uruguay 


Rhone 


Po 


Danube 


Nile 

Irrawaddy 



Table 14 gives the average amount of matter carried in 
solution by various rivers in the United States.* 

TABLE 14. 
AVERAGE AMOUNTS OF MATTER CARRIED IN SUS- 
PENSION BY VARIOUS RIVER WATERS. 

Parts per 
million. 
Merrimac River at Lawrence.... 10 

Hudson River at Albany 15 

Allegheny River at Pittsburg 50 

Potomac River at Washington .... 80 

Ohio River at Cincinnati 230 

Ohio River at Louisville 350 

Mississippi River at St. Louis 

Water Works intake 1200 

Mississippi River at New Orleans. 650 
22. Relation of River Flow to Sediment. — Table 15 
shows the amount of silt in suspension in the Rio Grande 
* See Report of. the Water Supply of the City of St. Louis, 1902, p. 21. 



24 



Water 



River at El Paso in 1889-90, and its relation to the volume of 
flow, as determined by the U. S. Geo. Survey.*' 

TABLE 15. 



Silt in the Rio Grande at El Paso. 
[Estimates by months.] 



Month. 



June 

July 

December . . 

1890. 

January ... 

February . . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August • . 



Sediment 
ratios. 



•00468 
•00201 
•00813 



•00613 
•00585 
•00347 
•00196 
•00131 
•00710 



Average 
discharge. 



Sec. feet. 

2,638 

237 

71 

196 

290 

424 

2,190 

5,771 

4,404 

854 

734 



Weight 
of water. 



Pounds. 

165,000 

14,810 

4,440 

12,250 

18, 130 

26.500 

136,900 

360,680 

275,250 

53,375 

45,875 



Sediment 
per second. 



Pounds. 
772 2 



36-2 
65*5 

162 6 

794-6 
,248-5 

539-5 
70 

325*7 



Sediment 
per month. 



Tons. 

,000,570 
39,800 
48,380 

48,500 
79,200 
217,700 
,029,800 
,671,700 
699,200 
93,730 
436,100 



The relation of river height to the quantity of sediment 
carried by the Mississippi River at New Orleans is shown on 
Diagram 5.** 

23. Density and Pressure. — Water is found to be reduced 
in volume about .00005 parts by an increase of a pressure of 
one atmosphere.* ** 

The amount of this reduction is shown in the following 
table : 

TABLE 16. 

REDUCTION IN VOLUME OF WATER UNDER 

PRESSURE. 

500 lbs. per sq. in. .00144= 2.488 cubic inches per cubic ft. 

750 lbs. per sq. in. .00216= 3.732 cubic inches per cubic ft. 

1000 lbs. per sq. in. .00288= 5.565 cubic inches per cubic ft. 

1500 lbs. per sq. in. .005 = 7.464 cubic inches per cubic ft. 

2000 lbs. per sq. in. .00644=11.128 cubic inches per cubic ft. 

4000 lbs. per sq. in. .01288=22.256 cubic inches per cubic ft. 

6000 lbs. per sq. in. .01932=33.386 cubic inches per cubic ft. 

24. Ice. — Critical temperature 32° Fah., weight of ice 
about 57J/2 lbs. per cubic foot. Submergence of floating ice 
11/12 of its mass in pure water, and in sea water above 8/9. 

"* Eleventh Annual Report U. S. Geo. Survey, Part 2, Irrigation, p. 57. 
** Report of Water Purification and Investigation, New Orleans, 1903, 

P- 34- 

*** Bulletin U. S. G. S. No. 92. The Compressibility of Liquids, p. 78. 



Suspension 



25 



DIAGRAM 5. 

RELATIVE GAUGE HEIGHT AND MATTER IN SUSPENSION 

IN MISSISSIPPI RIVER AT NEW ORLEANS. LA. 




26 



Water 



25. Aqueous Vapor. — Vaporization takes place from 
water surfaces at all temperatures, and is independent of the 
presence of air except as the air and its circulation retards or 
assists vaporization. The laws of the mixture of gases and 
vapors are as follows: 

First, the weight of vapor that will enter a given space 
is the same whether the space be empty or filled with gas. 

Second, when a space filled with gas is saturated with 
vapor, the tension or weight of the mixture is the sum of the 
tension or weight of the gas and vapor separately at the tem- 
perature of the mixture. 



DIAGRAM 6. 

WEIGHT Or AIR AND SATURATED AQUEOUS VAPOR 



GRAINS PER CUBIC FOOT 
210 2flO 3S0 420 



560 




05 M £>S ,06 

POUNDS PER CUBIC FOOT. 



Aqueous Vapor 



27 



Table 17 shows the tension or weight of saturated aqueous 
vapor, air, and a mixture of the two at different temperatures. 
The same relations are also shown graphically on Diagram 6. 



TABLE 17. 







WEIGHTS OF AIR, AQUEOUS VAPOR, 




And Saturated Mixtures of Air and Vapor 


at Different Temperatures, Under 


the Ordinary Atmospheric Pressure of 29.921 Inches of Mercury. 


Tempera- 
ture 
Degrees 
Fahr. 


Weight 
of cubic ft. 
of Dry Air 
at Differ- 
ent Tem- 


Elastic 

Force of 

Vapor 

Inches 

of 


MIXTURES OF AIR SATURATED WITH VAPOR. 


Elastic Force 

of the Air 
in Mixture of 
Air and Vapor 


Weight of Cubic Foot of the 
Mixture of Air and Vapor 


"Weight 


Weight 


Total 

Weight of 

Mixture, 

Lbs. 




peratures, 
Lbs. 


Mercury 


Inches of 
Mercury 


of the Air, 
Lbs. 


of the Vapor, 
Lbs. 





.0864 


.044 


29.877 


.0863 


.000079 


.086379 


12 


.0842 


.074 


29.849 


.0840 


.000130 


.084130 


22 


.0824 


.118 


29.803 


.0821 


.000202 


.082302 


32 


.0807 


.181 


29.740 


.0802 


.000304 


.080504 


42 


.0791 


.267 


29.654 


.0784 


.000440 


.078840 


52 


.0776 


.388 


29.533 


.0766 


.000627 


.077227 


62 


.0761 


.556 


29.365 


.0747 


.000881 


.075581 


72 


.0747 


.785 


29.136 


.0727 


.001221 


.073921 


82 


.0733 


1,092 


28.829 


.0706 


.001667 


.072267 


92 


.0720 


1,501 


28.420 


.0684 


002250 


.070717 


102 


.0707 


2,036 


27.885 


.0659 


.002997 


.068897 


112 


.0694 


2,731 


27 . 190 


.0631 


.003946 


.067046 


122 


.0682 


3,621 


26.300 


.0599 


.005142 


.065042 


132 


.0671 


4,752 


25.169 


.0564 


.006639 


.063039 


142 


.0660 


6,165 


23.756 


.0524 


.008473 


.060873 


152 


.0649 


7,930 


21.991 


.0477 


.010716 


.058416 


162 


.0638 


10,099 


19.822 


.0423 


.013415 


.055715 


172 


.0628 


12,758 


17.163 


.0360 


.016682 


.052682 


182 


.0618 


15,960 


13.961 


.0288 


.020536 


.049336 


192 


.0609 


19,828 


10.093 


.0205 


.025142 


.045642 


202 


.0600 


24,450 


5.471 


.0109 


.030545 


.041445 


212 


.0591 


29,921 


0.000 


.0000 


.036820 


.036820 



28 



Water 



The relation of pressure, temperature and volume of a 
pound of confined steam is shown in Diagram 7. 



DIAGRAM 7. 



150 


ORY SA1 


rURATED STEAM 












VOLUME 

AND 
'RESSURES 
OF 
STEAM. 

RANKIN. 




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JfO HO -K> 50 00 70 80 

VOLUMES IN CUBIC FEET TO THC LB- 



100 



Heat Energy in Water 29 

26. Latent Heat of Water. — To transform ice, water and 
vapor or steam from one state to the other, it is only necessary 
to extract or supply a certain quantity of heat energy -460° 
Fah. is the absolute zero of temperature. 

A graphical diagram showing the quantity of heat and 
the resulting temperatures as water changes from solid to 
liquid, and from liquid to vapor, is shown on Diagram No. 8.* 

DIAGRAM 8. 

RELATIONS OF HEAT ENERGY IN WATER. 

































M 


r 










d 








if 


1E 


LTT 


S 
















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2 


% 




















/ 




















• 1340- W 


z 


















/ 


r 












^ 








1340 ^ 


ieoo- 
















/ 






















.5 


£ ,e °° 




r/j 










4 


r 






















c 


II 




^1 












/ 
t 










> 


f 








Jf 






b 


J 



H 










i 
/ 










4 


f 










i 






*i 










/ 








y 


/ 












SI 


ft 


- 74Q« fft 


I 












4 
/ 


7 






y 


y^ 












« 

A 




f 




z 












/ 






> 
















h 


w 




.H 


IlJ ,00 °" 










/ 






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*// 


f 

















If 






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m 






. hJ 


ir 








4 
/ 


r 




/ 


















ty 


v 






" °^° Q 


Ux 








> 


/< 






























• 2ia° 


\J) OOO" 

Id 






I 




^ 








































































-OZERO 






Ly 






































lli goo- 




*8r 




































.— 260* 


Q 


















































































-— 480* 




O EOO 4< 

HEAT IN 


K> 600 OOO ><x 

BRITISH T 


DO 12< 

HEF 


JO 14< 


L. 


16( 

u 


)0 16 

NIT 


00 

s 





* See lecture by G. H. Babcock, Scientific American Sup. Nos. 624 and 
625, December, 1887. 



30 



Water 



27. Relation of Water and Energy. — Water of itself pos- 
sesses no energy, except that which is given to it from outside 
sources, or from the accident of position. The relation of the 
mechanical energy of water due to its position and weight are 
shown in Table 18. 

TABLE 18. 



EQUIVALENT UNITS OF ENERGY 


WORK 


HEAT 


ELEC- 
TRIC 


HYDRAULICS 





II 


1 

£ © 


fl © 

® 


H (us 

• © 

WPPU 






O «8 


3 






1 


.000446 


1383 


.000138 


.001285 


.000324 


.000377 


.12 


.016 


.0519 


.0069 


2240. 


1 


309.688 


.3097 


2.8785 


.7262 


.8439 


268.817 


35.906 


116.414 


15.456 


7.233 


.00323 


1 


.001 


.0093 


.00235 


.00272 


.8673 


.1159 


.3755 


.0499 


7233.18 


3.2291 


1000 


1 


9.302 


2.3452 


2.7241 


867.303 


115.928 


375.516 


49.90 


778. 


.3474 


107.562 


.1076 


1 


.2520 


.2929 


93.28 


12.448 


40.394 


5.368 


3085.34 


1.3774 


426.394 


.4264 


3.9683 


1 


1.1623 


370.17 


49.396 


160.29 


21.221 


2655.4 


1.1854 


371.123 


.3671 


3.414 


.8603 


1 


318.39 


42.486 


137.87 


183.23 


8.341 


.00372 


1.1532 


.00115 


.1072 


.0027 


.00314 


1 


.1334 


.433 


.05754 


62.39 


.02785 


8.6257 


.00863 


.0803 


.00202 


.02353 


7.48 


1 


3.245 


.4312 


19.259 


.00859 


2.6626 


.00266 


.0248 


.00624 


.00726 


2.309 


.3082 


1 


.1329 


144.92 


.0647 


20.036 


.02004 


.1863 


.04712 


.05457 


17.37 


2.318 


7.524 


1 



Energy may be acquired by water in the form of heat 
from outside sources. Under certain conditions the energy so 
contained in water (as steam) may be utilized for power pur- 
poses. The mechanical equivalents of the heat energy of 
steam under certain condition are shown in Table 19. 

28. Water Pressure. — The pressure produced by a col- 
umn of water is that due to the weight of the column above 
the surface considered. The comparative pressure in various 
units of head and area are shown in Table 20. 

29. Effects of Atmospheric Pressure. — Normal atmos- 
pheric pressure at sea level is about 14.9 lbs. to the square 
inch. With a weight of 62.425 lbs. per cubic foot, the pressure 
of water one foot in depth will be equal to .4335 lbs. on each 
square inch. At sea level, therefore, water will rise to an 
average height of 33.96 feet in a tube from which the air has 
been entirely exhausted. On account of atmospheric varia- 
tions, however, this may reach a maximum height of 34.4 feet, 



Water Pressure 



3i 



TABLE 19. 



EQUIVALENT UNITS OF ENERGY 


Horse 
Power 

Hours 


1000 
Foot 

Pounds 


Heat 

B. T. TJ. 

Per 

Hour 


Steam, One Pound, Working Between Limits 
Given Below 


From Water at a Temperature, Fahrenheit, of 


212° 


212° 


60° 


200° | 60° 


200° 


To Steam at a Gauge Pressure of 


OLbs. 


81 Lbs. 


100 Lbs. 


100 Lbs. 


150 Lbs. 


150 Lbs. 


1 


1980 


2544.987 


2.65 


2.545 


2.20 


2.5 


2.18 


2.47 


.0005 


1 


1.285 


00133 


.00129 


.00111 


.00126 


.00112 


.00125 


.0004 


788 


1 


.001035 


.001 


.00086 


.00098 


.000859 


.000975 


.358 


751.55 


966 


1 


.996 


.87 


.95 


.855 


.94 


.394 


778 


1000 


1.035 


1 


.86 


.984 


.858 


.974 


.455 


900.15 


1157 


1.19 


1.16 


1 


1.135 


.99 


1.122 


.401 


791.23 


1017 


1.05 


1.02 


.88 


1 


.87 


.99 


.459 


907.15 


1166 


1.21 


1.17 


1.01 


1.145 


1 


1.12 


.403 


797.45 


1025 


1.06 


1.025 


.89 


1.01 


.88 


1 





















TABLE 20, 



PRESSURE EQUIVALENTS. 


01 


+3 


2 V <D 

!** 


Pounds 
per 

Circular 
Inch 




10G0 Dynes 

per 

Square 

Centimeter 


Inches 

of 
Mercury 

Millimeters 

of 

Mercury 

32° Fah. 


Water 
Pressure 
Feet 
Head 


Water 

Pressure 

Meters 

Head 


9 
ft 

K 

O 

a 


] . 


144. 


.78540 


.0703 


69. 


2.0376 


51.63 


2 307 


.7,3 


.06793 


.C0694 


1. 


.00545 


.000488 


.00479 


.01415 


.3585 


.01602 


.00488 


.0004717 


1.273 


183. 3 


1. 


.08952 


87.845 


2.594 


.6573 


2.937 


.8954 


.08648 


14.223 


2048. 


11.17 


1. 


981.3 


28.98 


734.2 


32.81 


10. 


.966 


.01449 


2.086 


.01138 


.00101 


1. 


.02952 


7.48 


.03343 


.01013 


.00984 


.4912 


70.731 


.38579 


.03453 


33.880 


1. 


25.35 


1.1334 


.3454 


.03336 


.01937 


2.7S9 


.01521 


.001362 


1.336 


.03947 


1. 


.04468 


.01362 


.001316 


.4335 


62.425 


.34128 


.03048 


29.91 


.882 


22.38 


1. 


.30491 


.029448 


1.422 


204.76 


1.1169 


.1 


98.13 


2.8975 


73.42 


3.281 


1. 


.0966 


14.72 


21 19. f 8 


11.562 


1.035 


1015.8 


.9.92 


760. 


33.96 


10.352 


1. 



32 Water 

or a minimum height of 31.6 feet above sea level. Atmos- 
pheric pressure decreases, and may be determined by a modi- 
fication of the formula proposed by S. G. Ellis* for barometric 
measurements of heights, which is 

T+t— 60 j 
(1) H= 60000 (log B- log b) 1 1 + I 



1 



900 J 

H=difference of altitude in feet between two stations. 

B and b=the barometric readings in inches of mercury at 
the two stations 

T and t=the temperature of the air at the two stations in 
degrees Fahrenheit. 

In the problem under consideration and for average con- 
ditions, B will equal 30 inches, and T and t may be considered 
constant and equal to 60 degrees Fahr. With these constants 
substituted the formula (1) becomes 

H 

(2) Log b= 1. 47712 — , in which 

64000 
b=average barometer reading in inches of mercury. 
H=height of station above sea level in feet. 
The average pressure per square inch at various eleva- 
tions above sea level can be determined directly by the fol- 
lowing modification of formula (2) : 

H 

(3) Log P=i.i68oi- 

64000 
The average height of a column of water which will bal- 
ance atmospheric pressure can also be determined directly by 
the following modification of formula (2) : 

H 

(4) Log F=i.53ioi- 

64000 
In formula (3) and (4) 

P=the atmospheric pressure per square inch in pounds. 
F=the corresponding height of a column of water in feet. 
H=elevation of station above sea level in feet. 
* Proceedings Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 1. 



Water Pressure 33 

In Table 21 are given the average annual barometric read- 
ing at various points in the United States as determined by 
the U. S. Weather Bureau for 1890 and 1891, with the height 
of the location of the barometer above sea level and the calcu- 
lated pressure, by formula 2. 

In Table 22, these formula are applied to determine the 
conditions at various elevations above sea level. The calcu- 
lated average barometer reading is given in the second col- 
umn, the corresponding average atmospheric pressure per 
square inch in column 3, and the average height of a corre- 
sponding column of water in column 4. 

30. Physiological Relations of Water.* — About two- 
thirds of average human food is liquid. The average adult 
consumes about 4^ lbs. of simple liquid each day, and about 
2J/2 lbs. of solid food, which is nevertheless about half liquid, 
intimately commingled with actual solid materials. 

Water is, therefore, one of the prime necessities of human 
life, the property of solution being a most important property 
in physiological processes. 

31. Agricultural Relations of Water. — Vegetation is 
equally dependent on water for the solution of soluble food 
from the soil and its circulation through the vegetable struc- 
ture. 

For successful agriculture, without an artificial supply of 
water, about thirty inches of annual rainfall, properly dis- 
tributed, seems to be essential. About fifteen inches of this 
is required for vegetation, and the balance is lost in other 
ways. 

Where less than this amount of rainfall is available, irri- 
gation becomes desirable, and with a considerable decrease 
absolutely essential. Under other conditions, the topography 
of the country may render certain lands unfit for agriculture, 
on account of too much water received on the land, either by 
drainage from higher lands, or by overflow from streams, and 
successful agriculture may make systems of drainage ditches, 
or of dykes and levees essential. 

*W. J. McGee, The Potable Waters of Eastern United States; Potable 
Waters in Human Economy. 14th Annual Report U. S. G. S., Part 2, page 5. 



34 



Water 



TABLE 21. 

Observed and Calculated Barometic Heights 



^Elevation above 


Average 


Calculated 




Station. sea level. 


annual 


barometer. 


Difference. 






barometer. 






Key West, Fla. . 


22 


30.02 


29.97 


-.05 


New Orleans 


54 


29.96 


29.94 


—.02 


Philadelphia 


"7 


29.85 


29.87 


-f-.02 


Memphis, Term. 


330 


2966 


29.65 


—.01 


St. Louis 


571 


29.36 


29.38 


-h.02 


Cincinnati 


628 


29.32 


29.33 


+.01 


Detroit, Mich. .. 


724- 


29.16 


29.23 


+.05 


Chicago 


824 


29.06 


29.12 


+.06 


Bismarck, N. Dak. 


l68l 


28.20 


28.24 


+.04 


Ft. Assiniboin. . 


269O 


27.02 


27.21 


4-.I9 


Salt Lake 


4348 


25.58 


25.66 


+.08 


Santa Fe, N. Mex. 


7026 


23.24 


23-30 


+.06 



TABLE 22. 

Relations of Elevation to Barometer and Atmospheric Pressure 





Average height 


Average pressure 


Average height to 


Height above 


barometer 


in pounds per 


which water will 


sea level. 


in inches of 


square inch. 


rise in an ex- 




mercury. 




hausted tube. 





30.00 


14.72 


33-96 


100 


29.89 


14.67 


33.84 


200 


29.78 


14.62 


33-72 


300 


29.68 


14-57 


33.60 


400 


29-57 


14.51 


33-48 


500 


29.47 


14.46 


33-35 


600 


29.36 


14.41 


33-23 


700 


29.25 


14.36 


33-H 


800 


29.15 


14.30 


32.99 


900 


29.04 


14.25 


32.87 


1000 


28.94 


14.26 


32.76 


1250 


28.67 


14.07 


32.47 


1500 


28.42 


13-95 


32.19 


2000 


27.92 


13-70 


31.61 


25OO 


27.40 


13-45 


31.04 


3000 


26.93 


13.21 


30.49 


3500 


26.43 


12.98 


29.94 


4000 


25.98 


12.74 


29.41 


4500 


25.51 


12.51 


28.89 


5000 


25.06 


12.29 


28.37 


6000 


24.18 


n.85 


27-37 


7000 


23-32 


11.43 


26.40 


8000 


.22.50 


11.04 


25-47 


9000 


21.70 


10.65 


24.57 


1 0000 


20.93 


10.28 


23.70 






•Elevations are those of instruments at observatories 



Relations of Water 35 

32. Commercial Relations of Water. — Water has im- 
portant relations to commerce in affording a medium for navi- 
gation and transportation, especially in foreign and domestic 
commerce between points along the coast and on the great 
lakes. Navigation by means of canals and rivers, while still im- 
portant, has in a degree, lost the relative importance which it 
attained in the earlier history of commercial development. 

The importance of water as a source of power has been 
largely increased by the rapid developments in the means of 
electrical transmission. Public water supplies are also largely 
utilized for various commercial and manufacturing purposes. 

33. Sanitary Relations of Water. — The sanitary relations 
of water are important, not only on account of the necessity of 
a certain quantity of water to sustain life, but also on account 
of the effect on health of the impurities commonly found in it. 
Water, on account of its high solving and transporting quali- 
ties, is constantly removing matter from the drainage area on 
which it falls, and in settled regions receives and transmits 
much that may be detrimental to health, if the water so pol- 
luted is utilized for dietetic purposes. The protection of 
water for potable purposes, or its purification and delivery free 
from detrimental impurities, is, therefore, of vital importance. 
The utilization of water for the removal of waste, and the sani- 
tary disposal or purification of the waters so polluted, is also 
a matter of the greatest importance. 

LITERATURE. 

D. K. Clark, The Steam Engine. Blackie & Son. Expansion and Density of 

water, Vol. 1, p. 8. 
R. H. Thurston, Engine and Boiler Trials. John Wiley & Sons. Density and 

Volume of Water, p. 488. 
John Tyndall, The Forms of Water in Clouds and Rivers, Ice and Glaciers. D. 

Appleton & Co. 
Alex. Morton, Van Nostrand's Engineering Magazine. On the Expansion of 

Water. Vol. 7, p. 436. 
A. F. Nagle, Trans. Am. Soc. M. E. The Density of Water at Different Tem- 
peratures, Vol. 13, p. 396. 
Carl Barus, Bulletin No. 92, U. S. G. S. Compressibility of Liquids. 
Weisbach, Mechanics of Engineering, Vol. 2. Heat, Steam and Steam Engines. 

John Wiley & Sons. Expansion and Volume of Water, pp. 29 and 113. 
T. S. Hunt, Chemical and Geological Essays. Scientific Pub. Co. Thoughts on 

Solution in the Chemical Process, p. 448. 
W. R. Nichols, Water Supply. John Wiley & Sons. Introductory Chapter, p. 16. 



36 Water 

D. K. Clark, Manual of Rules, Tables and Data. D. Van Nostrand Co. Weight 
of Water, p. 124 ; Sea Water, p. 126 ; Expansion of Water, p. 338. 

Hamilton Smith, Hydraulics. John Wiley & Sons. Effect of Heat on Water, 

P- 13. 
Carl Herring, Conversion Tables. Weight of Water, p. 70. 

R. K. Mead, Chemists' Pocket Manual. Chemical Pub. Co. Apparent Weight 
of One Litre of Water, p. 82. Boiling Point Corresponding to Alti- 
tude and Pressure, p. 91 ; Graphical Tables of Specific Gravities of 
Solutions, p. 67. 

C. T. Porter, The Richards Steam Indicator. Spon & Chamberlain. Volume 
and Expansion of Water, p. 50. 

Steam. Babcock & Wilcox Co. Water at Different Temperatures, p. 75; Heat 
in Water at Various Temperatures, p. 15. 

Oscar Oldberg, Weights and Measures. Chicago, 1887. Relation of Weight 
to Volume of Water, p. 163. 

H. De LaCoux, Industrial Uses of Water. D. Van Nostrand Co. Chemical 
Action of Water in Nature, p. 1 ; Composition of Water, p. 5 ; Solu- 
tion of Certain Salts in Water, p. 21. 



37 



CHAPTER III. 

GENERAL HYDROGRAPHY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY. 

34. Circulation of Water on the Earth. — The circulation 
of water on the earth is due to the following causes : 

First. The waters of the ocean, heated at the tropics and 
cooled at the poles, have a motion towards the poles at the 
surface, and from the poles in the lower portions of the sea. 

Second. The difference in velocity of rotation between 
equatorial and polar regions effects the flowing waters and 
gives the warm surface currents an easterly direction against 
the westerly continental shores. These currents are modified 
by continents, continental irregularities, islands, and the larger 
rivers. 

Third. The attraction of the moon on the ocean and other 
large bodies of water produces the tides which follow the lunar 
revolution until they break on the eastern continental shores, 
and then flow back, vibrating synchronously with the lunar 
revolutions. 

Fourth. The friction of atmospheric currents on the 
water produces waves, which, at times of storm, break with 
great force on exposed portions of the land. 

Fifth. A constant evaporation goes on from all water 
surfaces. This is increased: 

A. By increased temperature. 

B. By the removal of vapor already formed by 
• atmospheric currents. 

The vapor so formed rises into the upper atmospheres, 
and when cooled below saturation is precipitated as rain. 

Sixth. The rainfall and melted snow follow various 
courses : 



38 Hydrography and Physiography 

A. A portion is re-evaporated and passes into the 

atmosphere. 

B. A portion is utilized in plant growth and 

transpiration. 

C. A portion seeps into the strata, and follow- 

ing their dip, finds its way ultimately into 
the rivers and seas. 

D. A portion flows over the surface into the water 

courses and thence to the sea. 

Seventh. In the polar regions and in high mountain al- 
titudes, precipitation occurs as snow, and the temperatures 
are so low that melting is comparatively small or does not 
occur. The resulting vast accumulations of snow exert a pres- 
sure sufficient to form ice masses in their lower portions, 
which, from the super-imposed weight, is pressed outward until 
its glacial terminations either melt in the lower altitudes, or 
reach the sea and are melted or broken off as icebergs. 

The action of the various factors which control the cir- 
culation of water on the earth is modified by the local physical 
and meterological conditions. 

35. The General Relations of Land and Water. — In a 
relative sense the unevenness of the earth's crust is slight, the 
maximum elevation of the highest land is about 5.5 miles above 
sea level, and the greatest depth of the ocean is about 6 miles. 
The maximum variation in elevation, therefore, is only about 
.14 of one per cent, of the earth's diameter. This elevation is 
sufficient, however, to raise somewhat more than a quarter of 
the earth's crust above the ocean. 

The exact relations of the area of land and water is not 
definitely known, as the Polar regions have not yet been fully 
explored. 

The total area of the globe is about 197,000,000 miles. Of 
this the land occupies somewhat more than 50,000,000 square 
miles. About 6/7 of the land area occurs in one hemisphere, 
of which it occupies almost one-half the area, while in the re- 
maining hemisphere only about one-fifteenth of the area is 
land. (R. S. Tarr. — Physical Geography. Chapter IX. Form 
and General Characteristics of the Ocean.) 



Physiographic Features 39 

36. Physiographic Features of the Earth. — The physio- 
graphic features of the earth may be divided for purposes of 
study and investigation as follows: 

1. Land Forms: 

A. Continents. 

B. Islands. 

2. Land Features: 

A. Mountains, Hills, and Cliffs. 

B. Plains and Plateaus. 

C. Valleys and Stream Channels. 

D. Caverns. 

E. Coast Forms. 

3. Water Forms: 

A. Oceans. 

B. Lakes. 

C. Rivers and Streams. 

D. Swamps and Marshes. 

E. Phreatic Waters. 

4. Water Features : 

A. Cataracts. 

a. Gradational. 

b. Diastropic. 

c. Vulcanic. 

B. Springs and Geysers. 

C. Artesian and Deep Wells. 

(J. W. Powell. Nat. Geo. Mon. No. 2, Physiographic 
Features. Tarr, Physical Georgraphy, Chapter XXI. Land 

Forms.) 

LITERATURE. 

R. S. Tarr, Elementary Physical Geography. Maximillian & Co. 

National Geographical Monographs. American Book Co. 

C. R. Dreyer, Lessons in Physical Geography. American Book Co. 

W. M. Davis, Physical Geography. Ginn & Co. 

T. H. Huxley, Physiography. Macmillan & Co. 

J. W. Redway, Elementary Physical Geography. Chas. Scribner & Sons. 

M. F. Maury, The Physical Geography of the Sea. 

John Tyndall, The Forms of Water in Clouds and Rivers, Ice and Glaciers. 

D. Appleton & Co. 
I. C. Russell, Lakes of North America. Ginn & Co. Rivers of North America. 

Putnam's Sons. North America. D. Appleton & Co. 
U. S. Geo. Survey, Annual Reports, Monographs, Bulletins and Professional 

Papers. 
Reports of the Geological Surveys of Various States. 
Annual Reports of Smithsonian Institute. 



40 



CHAPTER IV. 

HYDRO-METEOROLOGY. 

37. Meteorology. — Meteorology is the science that 
treats of atmospheric conditions, the causes which give rise to 
these conditions and their modifications. 

The various phenomena considered in meteorological 
science are mutually dependent, and must be studied in their 
broad general relations with each other, in order to be under- 
stood. 

Hydro-meteorology, while it especially considers those 
conditions most intimately connected with the water of the 
atmosphere, its precipitation, evaporation, and general rela- 
tions, must, nevertheless, also consider as well, general me- 
teorological science, in order to make its more special subjects 
fully understood. The term "Hydro-meteorology," there- 
fore, may be considered to refer to the general science of 
meteorology, treated with special reference to the question of 
aqueous atmospheric circulation. 

38. Atmosphere. — The earth's atmosphere has most im- 
portant influences on the evaporation of water, the distribu- 
tion of aqueous vapor, and the precipitation of rain. While 
evaporation would take place regardless of the atmosphere, 
yet the atmosphere being always present, modifies and con- 
trols the actual prevailing conditions. (Tarr, Physical Geog- 
raphy, Chapter II; Waldo, Meteorology, Chapter I.) 

39. Atmospheric Temperatures. — Atmospheric tempera- 
tures, which are important factors in the occurrence of rain- 
fall, vary as follows: 

First, The atmospheric temperature decreases from 
the equator to the poles. 



Atmospheric Circulation 41 

Second, The temperature decreases with the alti- 
tude above sea level. 

Third, The temperature increases with the advent 
of day and decreases at night. 

Fourth, The temperature decreases as the surface 
of the earth receives the more inclined rays of 
the sun, due to the revolution of the earth on 
its solar orbit. 

Fifth, Temperature also varies with the variation 
in the winds, and the variation in relative hu- 
midity. 
(Tarr, Physical Geography, Chapter 3; Waldo, Meteoro- 
logy, Chapter 2.) 

40. Atmospheric Pressure. — Normal atmospheric pres- 
sure should be symmetrical and practically the same in all 
places having a common altitude, for the pressure should be 
equal to the weight of the column of air above the point 
under consideration, which should be the same for all places 
of the same height above sea level. 

On account of the disturbing influence of the sun's heat, 
and the movement of air currents, largely caused thereby, a 
considerable variation is caused in barometric pressure, and 
its observation becomes an important matter for meteorologi- 
cal research. (Waldo, Meteorology, Chapter 3.) 

41. Atmospheric Circulation. — Atmospheric circulation, 
or the winds, are produced by the following causes : 

First, the atmosphere rotates with the earth, of 
which it forms a part. 

Second, the atmosphere, heated at the tropics, rises 
and flows towards the poles, where, as it is 
cooled, it settles and produces lower counter 
currents towards the tropics. The great differ- 
ence in the relative speed of rotation at the 
equator and poles gives an easterly direction 
to the upper warm current, and the lower re- 
turn current is given a westerly direction for 
the same reason. 



42 Hydro-Meteorology 

Third. The mixture of aqueous vapor with the 
atmosphere and the changes of temperature 
involved in precipitation, produce vertical cur- 
rents which greatly modify the velocities, al- 
titudes and direction of atmospheric currents. 
Fourth. Irregularity in the topographic features 
of a country creates marked changes in the di- 
rection of the lower winds, and produce eddies 
and irregularities in the lower air currents. 
Fifth. Variation in local temperatures of land or 
water modify the local atmospheric currents 
sometimes to a considerable extent. 
The very great number of possible relations and combina- 
tions between these various causes of atmospheric movements 
make the winds at lower altitudes seem uncertain, while those 
in the higher altitudes being more free from local influences 
are more largely governed by the two first great causes. 

(See Waldo, Meteorology, Chapter 4; Tarr, Physical 
Geography, Chapter 4.) 

42. Atmospheric Moisture. — The constant circulation of 
moisture between the air and the surface of the earth and 
water is the primary phenomenon of hydrology, on which all 
other phenomena depend. 

This circulation passes through three stages, viz. : evapo- 
ration, saturation and condensation. 

Evaporation takes place whenever the space in contact 
with the water's surface is not fully saturated. The rapidity 
of evaporation depends on the humidity of the adjacent space, 
and the temperature of the air. The movement of dry air 
currents tending to remove the vapor already formed, is an 
important factor in increasing evaporations. 

The point of saturation depends on the temperature of 
the surrounding air, and the quantity of vapor which may be 
contained in a given space increases rapidly with the tempera- 
ture. A reduction in temperature, in space already saturated, 
produces super-saturation, and consequent condensation. 

Condensation appears in various forms, according to the 
physical condition with which it is accompanied. The princi- 



Causes of Rainfall 43 

pal phenomena may be classed as dew, frost, fog, haze, mist, 
clouds, rain, snow and hail. (See Waldo, Meteorology, Chap- 
ter 5; Tarr, Physical Geography, Pages 107-116 inclusive.) 

43. Rainfall. — Rainfall is due directly to the reduction in 
temperature of atmospheric currents, carrying with them 
aqueous vapor, to a point where super-saturation and precipi- 
tation results. 

The general term "Rainfall," as ordinarily used, includes 
both rain and melted snow. 

The causes of condensation are : 

First, Cooling by contact with colder bodies. 
Second, by Radiation. 
Third, by Expansion. 

Fourth, by the mechanical mixture of air of differ- 
ent densities and humidities. (See Waldo, 
Meteorology, Chapter 6; Tarr, Physical Geog- 
raphy, Pages 1 17-123.) 

LITERATURE. 

Frank Waldo, Elementary Meteorology. American Book Co. 

T. Russell, Meteorology. Macmillan & Co. 

Frank Waldo, Modern Meteorology. Scribner's Sons. 

A. W. Greeley, American Weather. Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Elias Loomis, Treatise on Meteorology. Harper Bros. 

W. Ferril, A Popular Treatise on the Winds. Wiley & Sons. 

U. S. Weather Bureau, Annual Reports. Monthly Weather Review. 

U. S. Weather Bureau, Bulletin No. 19, Report on the Relative Humidities of 

Southern New England and other Localities. Bulletin L. Climatology 

of California. 



44 



CHAPTER V. 

HYDRO-GEOLOGY. 

44. Influence of Geological Structure. — The geological 
structure, and the resulting topographical conditions of a coun- 
try modifies to a very great extent its hydrological phenomena. 
The mountain masses exert a marked influence on the local 
rainfall. The surface slope of the country is a controlling fac- 
tor in the character of run off and of river flow. The nature 
and direction of the strata have a marked influence on the 
trend of streams, and the effect of flow on the denudation of 
the strata themselves. The structure and dip of the strata are 
among the controlling factors which modify the presence and 
flow of underground waters. 

45. General Classification of Rock Masses. — For the con- 
sideration of this subject the rock masses of the earth may 
be considered in four principal groups.* 

First. The Archean rocks, which constitute the earliest 
known rock masses, and which, while they may not, and in 
most cases certainly are not, the primary rocks which consti- 
tuted the original surface of the globe, yet are the group most 
closely associated with the primary formations, and are the 
sources from which the sedimentary rocks are most largely 
derived. 

Second. Volcanic rocks, which have their origin from 
flows of melted lava, which has issued from the earth's interior, 
through active volcanoes and volcanic fissures. 

Third. The sedimentary rocks which have been formed 
by the denudating influence of atmospheric and hydrological 

*J. W. Powell, Physiographic Processes, p. 11. 



Chronological Order of Strata 45 

agencies, which continually act with destructive effect on the 
exposed rock masses. The drainage waters have conveyed the 
resulting decomposed materials in solution and suspension to 
the sea, where the material has been deposited in more or less 
changed forms, and have served to build up new strata, which 
in their turn, have been lifted up and exposed to like condi- 
tions, and served, together with the formations already ex- 
posed, to furnish the new material for still later deposits. 

These strata are laid down somewhat like the leaves of a 
book, with upturned edges only accessible at the surface. 

Fourth. The mantle rocks are the superficial deposits 
consisting of the disintegrated indurated formations produced 
by the destructive action of the atmosphere, of water and of 
ice, and which either remain a decomposed mass over the 
parent rock, or have been transported by various agencies to 
other localities where they remain a surface deposit of soil 
and subsoil, comparatively loose and unconsolidated. 

46. Chronological Order and Occurrence of Strata. — 
Table No. 23 gives the geological formation arranged in the 
relative order of their occurrence, the lowest being the oldest. 
In no location is the geological section complete, but from 
the occurrence of these strata at various places in the country 
the sequence of formation has been determined. 

A study of the geological strata, and a knowledge of the 
probable mode of their formation and occurrence is of great 
importance in the investigation of hydrological conditions. 

Map No. 1 is a general geological map of the United 
States, showing the formations, as far as they are known to 
occur at the surface. From these outcroppings the strata dip 
in general in the direction of the later deposits, sinking be- 
neath the surface, under the more recent formations, and can 
be reached at points below the surface of more recent strata 
only by deep excavations, or by the drill. Excavations made 
on the outcrops of geological deposits will uncover only forma- 
tions of a still earlier age. 

47. Local Study Desirable. — To give a clearer idea of 
geological growth and of the geological structure of the earth 
(with the limited time available) a more detailed study of some 



129* 127* 125" 123* 121" 119° 117" 115" 113" 111° 109' 107° 105° 103" 10T 99* 




&>>■ 



2 ESSS! NEOCENE 

8 §~e3eocenb 

4 r.'.\'.'.1 CBETACB»US 

5 E^ JUBA-TRIASSIC 

1 6 ES3 carboniferous' 

7 E3223 DEVONIAN 

8 g— SILURIAN 

>. 9 K-: :-:«h cambrian 

10 CSZ3ALGONKIAN 

1 1 LW.VJ AHCHEAN 
18 ESS IGNEOUS 



Map No. I 



05° 93° 91* 




4 8 



Hydro- Geology 



TABLE 23. 



Table of Geological Formations of the United States, together with 
.those represented in the upper mississippi v alley. 

The numbers are those used in Macfarlane's American Geological Railway Guide. 


Age. 


Group 


U. S. Formations. 


Upper Mississippi 

Valley 

Formations. 


Approxi- 
mate: 
Thickness. 


Onozoic. 


[20] Quaternary. 


20 Recent. 


pod] Alluvium. 
2oc] Loess. 
'2ob] Clay and sandy. 
[2 oaj Boulder clay. 


Feet. 
to 400 




[19] Tertiary. 


19c Pliocene. 
19b Miocene. 
19a Eocene. 


No representative. 







1 


[18] Cretacious. 


l«c Upper Cretacious. 

18b Middle 

18a Lower " 


No representative. 










[17] Jurassic. 


17 Jurassic. 


No representative. 





[16] Triassic. 


16 Triassic. 


No representative. 





Paleozoic. 


[13-15] 

Carboniferous. 


15 Permo-Carboniferous. 


No representative. 





MB Upper Coal Measures. 


Upper Coal Measures. 


600 to 1,200 


14A Lower Coal Meas'res. 


14Ab Lower Coal Meas'rs. 
14Aa Millstone Grit. 


13 Sub-Carboniferous. 


13e Chester Group. 

13d St. Louis " 

13c Keokuk '.' 

13b Burlington limestone 

13a Kinderbook Group. 


500 to 800 
50 " 200 

100 " 150 
25 " 200 

100 " 150 


[8-12] Devonian. 


12 Catskill. 
11 Chemung. 


No representative. 






i0 Hamilton. 


10 Black Slate 


lOt 70 


9 Coroiferous. 


9 Devonian limestone. 


10 to 120 


8 Oriskany. 


8b Oriskany sandstone. 
Clear Creek limestone. 


40 to 60 
300 " 500 


[3-7] Silurian. 


5-7 Upper Silurian. 


7 Lower Hclderberg. 
5 Niagara limestone. 


CO 
50 to 300 


3-4 Lower Silurian. 


4b Cincinnati or Hudson 

River Group. 
4a Trenton Group. 
3b St. Peter sandstone. 


100 to 250 

200 " 4'Hl 
50 " 250 


[2] Cambrian. 


2c Calciferous. 


2c Lower Maguesian or 
Oneta limestone. 


SJ to 825 


2b Potsdam. 


2b Potsdam of St. Croix. 


100 to 1,800 


A zoic. 


[l] Archean. 


2a Keweenian. 


2a Keweeuian. 


to 45,000 


lb Huron ian. 


lb Huronian or Algon- 
cian. 


to 13,000 


la Laurentinn, 


la Laurentinn. 


(!) 



; 



The Upper Mississippi Valley 49 

particular locality should be made. This will enable the gen- 
eral features of geological structure to be more clearly under- 
stood than would be possible with the discussion of the larger 
area of the United States, where, with the multitude of details, 
the general principles are likely to be obscured. 

For this purpose, the Valley of the Upper Mississippi 
River has been selected, and in the investigation of the geo- 
logical history of this territory it should be understood that it 
is but a representative of conditions, largely similar, which 
have occurred in all portions of this country and of other lands, 
all of which have had a corresponding geological history, more 
or less varied, but in a general way controlled by similar laws, 
and which have resulted in similar general conditions, more 
or less modified in detail as the controlling factors have dif- 
fered in their nature and extent. 

At the beginning of the formation of the sedimentary 
strata, the archean land was probably quite limited in extent 
in comparison with the present exposed continental areas. Its 
approximate boundaries, as far as known, and within the pres- 
ent area of North America, are shown in Map No. 2. On this 
map is also shown the limits of the area of the Upper Missis- 
sippi Valley now under discussion. 

48. The Upper Mississippi Valley. — The Upper Mis- 
sissippi Valley, together with much adjoining territory, con- 
sisting of the Lake Michigan and Lake Superior basins and 
the valley of the Red River of the north, had a common geo- 
logical origin and history, and, at a comparatively recent 
geological period, a common drainage system, all their waters 
emptying through various channels into the Mississippi River 
and thence into the Gulf of Mexico, until subsequent geological 
changes so modified the topography as to produce the present 
drainage systems. 

The territory here considered comprises the greater por- 
tion of Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota, and a small 
portion of North-eastern Missouri and North-western Indiana, 
and embraces within its area much of the richest farming 
country of the United States — a country largely settled, and 
having numerous thriving and growing communities. In the 



5o 



Hydro-Geology 



MAP No. 2. 




APPROXIMATE MAP 

OF KNOWN ARCHEAN LAND IN 

NORTH AMERICA 



Archean Land 
MAP No. 3. 



5i 




Section along the line A B 




Potsdam forming 



Potsdam forming 



CAMBRIAN AGE — Potsdam Deposits forming in Cambrian and Superior Seas. 



52 Hydro-Geology 

north are forests of pine, and rich mines of iron and copper, 
while in the south are valuable deposits of bituminous coal 
and fire clay. Deposits of valuable building stone are found 
throughout its extent. It contains all the resources necessary 
for a rich and populous manufacturing and agricultural de- 
velopment. 

49. Archean Land. — This territory is shown, on a larger 
scale, on Map No. 3. On this map is also shown the approxi- 
mate exposure of the archean deposits during the earlier part 
of the Cambrian period. This entire region is supposed to be 
underlain by archean rocks of unknown thickness, which, as 
far as our knowledge goes, may be regarded as the base rock 
or foundation on which rests the later sedimentary deposits. 
The archean rocks of this area may be divided into periods 
defined by indications of a certain sequence in their origin 
and method of deposition. The earliest are the Laurentian 
rocks, consisting of granites, syenites, and allied rocks. Of a 
later origin are the Huronian or Algonkian deposits, which 
consist of crystalline magnesium limestone, quartzite, slates 
and schists, and contain also the iron ores of Minnesota, Wis- 
consin and Michigan. Next in order came the rocks of the 
Keweenawan period, consisting of sedimentary rocks, sand- 
stones, conglomerates, and shales, with eruptive rocks con- 
taining the copper deposits of the Lake Superior region. 

Many of these rocks are flexed, folded, tilted and meta- 
morphosed, showing evidence of upheaval and depression of 
the earth's crust of great magnitude and extent. With the 
exception of the eruptive rocks, most of the above show evi- 
dence of sedimentary origin, indicating their derivation from 
a still more remote source, and that they are not themselves 
a portion of the original crust of the earth. 

50. The Potsdam Formation. — Since the beginning of 
geological history, the same agencies that are now wearing 
away the land surface and filling up the sea, have been at 
work, aided or hindered by the variations in climate which 
have marked the passage of time. The rains, with their dis- 
solved gases, soften and wear the surface of the rocks. Taking 
up the soluble portions, they decompose and disintegrate the 



The Potsdam Formation 53 

most lasting rocks. The sea, working at the coast line, tum- 
bles the rocks into the surf, there to grind them into sand and 
pebbles, which again aid in the degradation of the adjacent 
land. Although the amount of this wear from day to day- 
seems small, yet the accumulated work of these agencies, 
operating through the ages, has sufficed to pull down conti- 
nents and to build up deposits, which, being elevated by up- 
heavals of the crust, have formed new stretches of land sur- 
face, and these in their turn have been disintegrated and 
destroyed to form new and later deposits. By these agencies 
the Archean deposits which reared their heads above the Cam- 
brian Sea were worn and disintegrated, and being carried by 
torrential floods into the sea, formed the vast beds of Potsdam 
sandstone which underlie all of this area expect that small 
portion where the Archean rocks still show their outcrop above 
the surrounding deposits. 

During this age the principal part of the area was under 
the sea, which throughout Wisconsin was comparatively shal- 
low and contained many quartzite islands of the Huronian 
formation, which yet rear their heads above the Potsdam 
outcrop. This Potsdam deposit consists mostly of sandstone 
derived from the broken quartz grains of the decomposed 
granites and allied rocks. These deposits, close to the Archean 
land, consist of coarse quartzose sand rock, very open and 
porous in its nature, and free from the iron, lime and clay, 
which, in the higher strata, are found associated with it. The 
Cambrian Sea held in its depths some of the earliest forms 
of animal life. Myriads of small shellfish, the remains of which 
may be seen in many of the Potsdam outcrops, inhabited its 
waters. 

Although commonly spoken of as a single geological 
stratum, the Potsdam is by no means homogeneous in texture 
throughout. During its formation a vast period of time 
elapsed, very many disturbances occurred, and the circum- 
stances of deposition of the different portions of the stratum 
varied greatly. These variations were almost or quite as great 
as those that marked the changes to subsequent geological 
ages. 



54 Hydro-Geology 

The evidence of this, in portions of Wisconsin, is so 
marked that Prof. T. C. Chamberlain has classed the Potsdam 
strata of Central and Eastern Wisconsin in the following sub- 
divisions : 

SUB-DIVISIONS OF POTSDAM DEPOSIT. 

Feet. 

Sandstone (Madison) 35 

Limestone shale and sandstone (Mendota) 60 

Sandstone, calcareous 155 

Bluish shale, calcareous 80 

Sandstone, slightly calcareous 160 

Very coarse sandstone, non-calcareous 280 

Total 770 

The thicknesses given are subject to wide variation. As 
a rule they thin out quite rapidly in Wisconsin northward 
from Madison, and increase in thickness to the southward into 
Illinois. 

Prof. W. H. Winchell notes a somewhat similar classifi- 
cation in Minnesota. In a deep well drilled in East Minneap- 
olis he found the following series of Potsdam rocks. (See 
Geology of Minnesota, Vol. II, p. 279.) 

SECTION OF ARTESIAN WELL, EAST MINNE- 
APOLIS. _ . 

Feet. 

Sand (Drift) 42 

Blue limestone, Trenton 28 

White sandstone, St. Peter's 164 

Red limestone, lower magnesian 102 

Gray limestone, lower magnesian 16 

Potsdam : 

White limestone, Jordan 116 

Blue shale, St. Lawrence limestone 128 

White sandstone, Desbach 82 

Blue shale 170 

Sandy limestone 9 

White sandstone 130 

Sandy marl, Hinkley 8 



The Potsdam Formation 55 

White sandstone 79 

Red marl 57 

Red sandstone 290 

1069 



1421 
Although the classification into these sub-divisions is 
warranted by well-defined beds around Madison, Wis., in east- 
ern Wisconsin and in Minnesota, yet, owing to the thinning 
out or disappearance of these strata or by the multiplication 
of sub-divisions, the local variations are so great that in many 
places it is impossible to classify the strata found, under any 
general classification except the general name, Potsdam; for 
the limits of this formation, as a whole, are well and clearly 
defined. Further examples of the Potsdam stratification will 
show more clearly its variations. The following section of 
the Potsdam strata at Hudson, Wis., given by Prof. Chamber- 
lain illustrates this variation. (See Geology of Wisconsin, 
Vol. IV, p. 113.) 

Section of Potsdam Strata at Hudson, Wis. 

20 feet coarse, incoherent, red or white quartzose sand. 

3 " buff calcareous layer with shaly layer of green sand. 

2 " compact brown calcareous sandstone. 

2 " brownish-white sandstone. 

8 '■ incompact while sandstone. 

2 " brownish-white sandstone. 

8 " incompact white sandstone. 

12£ " white to buff sandstone. 

8 " white to buff sandstone, stained with iron. 
12£ " yellowish-brown sandstone, in mottled layers. 

3 h " buff friable sandstone, effervesces slightly. 

It) " incoherent sandstone. 

27 " shaly sandstone, effervesces slightly. 

9 " compact light buff sandstone, effervesces briskly. 
5 " dark brown sandstone. 

10 " dark brown rock, containing much calcareous material. 

8 " shades into strata above and below. 

17 " dark green shale. 

10 " dark buff sandstone. 

5 " buff calcareous sandstone. 

5 " green shale. 

5 " mottled shale. 

13 " light brown to white sandstone. 

2 " friable shale. 

10 " white sandstone. 

3 " green and white sandstone. 

15 " friable light buff and yellowish sandstone. 
10 " white sandstone. 

245* 



56 



Hydro- Geology 



Other sections encountered in Illinois, are as follows : 



At Streatcr. 

Drift 

Coal measures 

Trenton limestone 

St. Peter sandstone 

Lower magnesian limestone . 
Potsdam : 

"White sandstone 

White limestone ..... 

White sandstone. 

Dark gray limestone . . . 

Fine reddish sandstone . . 

Dark gray limestone . . . 

White and brown sand . . 

Gray limestone 

White and brown sandstone 

Blue shale ...... 

Dark limestone 

Variegated sandstone . . . 

Soft limestone ..... 

Variegated shales ... 

Dark red sandstone . . . . 

Blue shale. • • 

Bluish drab and huff limest. 

Totat depth in Potsdam . . . 
Total depth . . . 



Feet 
. 30 
. 211 
203 
. 225 
. 90 



133 

211 
37 
50 
15 
13 
1 
18 

168 

100 
73 

187 
60 

158 
80 
50 

383 



1737 
2496 



At Rockford. 

Drift 

Trenton limestone .... 
St. Peter sandstone . . . . 
Lower magnesian limestone 
Potsdam: 

Green sandstone .... 

Red sandy shale .... 

Gray sandstonel . . 

Blue shale 

Gray sandstone 

Red sandstone 

White sandstone . . . 

Red shale 

White sandstone . . 

Red shale 

White sandstone . . . 

Red shale 

White sandstone .... 

Red shale 

White sandstone .... 

Gray sandstone 

Yellow sandstone .... 

Red shaly sandstone . . 

White sandstone .... 

Red shale 

White sandstone .... 



Feet 
. 125 
. 30 
. 225 
. 105 



5 

.72 

148 

25 

40 

25 

335 

2 

13 

2 

13 

1 

9 

20 

80 

45 

20 

105 

90 

275 

171 



Total depth in Potsdam . 
Total depth . 



1486 
19S 



At Ottawa, 111. Feet 

Drift 35 

St. Peter sandstone 130 

Lower magnesian limestone 145 

Potsdam : 

Sandstone no 

Free limestone 175 

Sandstone 260 

Blue shale 120 

Hard sharp sandstone. . . . 100 

Sandstone 115 

Shale 360 

Sandstone 290 

Total depth in Potsdam 1530 

Total depth 1840 



At Joliet, 111. Feet 

Niagara limestone 230 

Hudson River shale 68 

Trenton limestone 334 

St. Peter sandstone 217 

Red shale 40 

Lower magnesian limestone 450 

Potsdam : 

Sharp sandstone 175 

Blue shale 50 

Sandy limestone 125 

Shale 230 

Sandstone 150 

Total depth in Potsdam 730 

Total depth 2066 



The Lower Magnesious Limestone 57 

As indicated in the foregoing tables, the Potsdam varies 
greatly in its character throughout its extent, not only from 
shale and limestone to sandstone, but also in the character of 
the sandstone, which is mostly fine-grained, but becomes 
coarse-grained in its lower strata, and passes into a conglom- 
erate near its margin, the shore of the ancient Archean land. 
As may be understood from its physical character, it readily 
transmits the water which it receives at its outcrop, either from 
rains or from the numerous streams which flow over its ex- 
posed surface, the extent of which may be judged from the 
maps. The outcrops of the Potsdam occupy about 14,000 
square miles in central Wisconsin, extending in a cresent- 
shaped tract around the Archean outcrop. 

51. The Lower Magnesian or Oneota Limestone. — While 
the variation in the circumstances attending its deposition 
caused considerable differences in the various strata of which 
the Potsdam deposits are composed, a more radical variation 
gave rise to a still more remarkable change in the formation, 
and the lower magnesian limestone resulted. This formation 
is a dolomitic limestone, coarse, irregular in stratification, 
often inter-stratified with shale or sandstone layers and lime- 
stone breccia, which last, occurring in clusters or heaps, often 
gives the upper surface a billowy appearance and causes it to 
vary greatly in thickness. The variation in thickness seems 
to be more marked in Wisconsin than elsewhere. 

Although undoubtedly cracked and fissured to some ex- 
tent, it seems to be in general free from these disturbances 
and to offer a quite uniform and homogeneous mass to prevent 
the upward passage of the waters contained in the Potsdam 
stratum below it. This stratum is found from 65 to 260 feet 
thick through Wisconsin and is from 105 feet to 170 feet 
thick in northern Illinois. It seems to thicken quite rapidly 
to the southward, and is found to be 490 feet thick at Joliet 
500 feet thick at Streator and 811 feet thick at Rock Island. 
A flow of water, which may be derived from the underlying 
Potsdam sandstone, is sometimes found in the softer portions 
of this stratum. 



58 



Hydro- Geology 
MAP No. 4. 




Section along the line ABC 
B 



Silurian Sea £ 



Arehean 

^ As Aw /V ^ •S ^ *> *S 




St. Peter forming 



Lower Magttetiatv St. Peter f owning 



Beginning of Silurian Age. St. Peter Sandstone forming in the Sea. 



The St. Peter Sandstone 59 

52. The St. Peter Sandstone. — Above the lower magne- 
sian limestone lies a remarkably uniform quartzose sandstone. 
It is uniform in material and thickness, and quite covers all the 
irregularities in the surface of the underlying limestone, ex- 
cept at some points in Wisconsin where it is entirely pinched 
out; the Trenton limestone lying directly on the lower mag- 
nesian limestone. The average thickness of the St. Peter sand- 
stone throughout the territory under discussion is probably 
about 150 feet, although in Wisconsin Prof. T. C. Chamber- 
lain estimates its average thickness as only about 80 feet. 
This deposit is supposed to have been formed in a shallow 
sea by the decomposition of the Archean and Potsdam rocks. 
The hypothetical condition of the Upper Mississippi Valley 
during the formation of the deposit is shown in Map No. 4. 
No fossils have been found in this rock, and its formation 
marked an epoch probably unfavorable to the existence of life. 

This stratum has an outcrop of about 2,000 square miles 
in Wisconsin, and also crops out at several points in Illinois 
along a line of upheaval which passes southwesterly from 
Stephenson County to the vicinity of La Salle, bringing the 
St. Peter to the surface along the Rock River at Oregon and 
Grand Detour, and along the Illinois River from La. Salle to 
Ottawa. The lower magnesian limestone is also brought to 
the surface at Utica by this uplift. The St. Peter sandstone 
is an important water-bearing stratum, although its outcrop is 
so low that the pressure of its water is usually much less than 
the water of the Potsdam. 

53. Trenton Age. — Although apparently no life existed 
during the formation of the St. Peter sandstone, yet conditions 
favorable to the existence of life again returned, accompanied 
by geographic changes in the relation between the sea and 
the land, and extensive beds of limestone were again deposited. 
These constituted the limestones of the Trenton group, which 
may be divided into various substrata more or less distinct in 
character. Of these the Galena limestone is, perhaps, the best 
known, but for the purpose of this paper the Trenton may be 
considered as a whole, inasmuch as its general character is ap- 
proximately uniform. 



6o 



Hydro-Geology 
MAP No. 5 




Niagara Period. Niagara Deposits forming in Interior Sea. 



The Carboniferous Age 61 

54. The Cincinnati or Hudson River Formation. — Fur- 
ther change in the conditions of deposition gave rise to turbid 
floods of more or less intermittent and local occurrence. These 
again altered the character of the deposit, and the Cincinnati 
or Hudson River shale resulted. This consists of clay shale 
interbedded with more or less limestone. 

55. The Niagara Formation. — The Cincinnati formation 
was followed by the limestone deposits of the Niagara period, 
which are divisible into strata of more or less local importance. 
This deposit occurs at surface outcrops at different points in 
the valley , and embraces the Joliet, Lemont, Naperville, Wau- 
kesha and Anamosa limestones. A general idea of the sup- 
posed extent of the land in the Upper Mississippi Valley during 
the formation of the Niagara limestone is shown in Map No. 
5, which illustrates also the gradual elevation and extension 
of the land surface. 

56. The Devonian Formation. — Over the Niagara forma- 
tion were deposited the rocks of the Devonian period, consist- 
ing of limestone rocks of no great interest in this discussion. 

At this time a large portion of the area under considera- 
tion had been elevated above the sea, and the last remaining 
series of indurated deposits which we shall here consider was 
in this area more limited in extent than any which preceded it. 

57. The Carboniferous Age. — The carboniferous age 
which followed is illustrated by Map No. 6, which shows the 
further recession of the sea and the consequent limitation of 
the strata then under process of formation. 

This age ushered in an epoch of life very different from 
any which had preceded it. Its deposits were comparatively 
local in character, and although they have in a general way 
been correlated, yet there is a greater variation in these strata 
than in those of any preceding deposits. Especially is this 
true in those of the coal measures proper. These deposits 
seem to have been made in shallow seas, lakes or swamps of 
limited extent, rather than in a broad and deep sea such as 
those in which most of the preceding deposits had been formed. 
Hence, great local variations are observable and the strata 
have commonly a much more limited geographic extent. This 



62 



Hydro- Geology 
MAP No. 6. 




Section along the line A B 



lancer JUagnetion 
St. Peter 



Carboniferotia form i ng 




Carboniferous Period. Carboniferous Deposits forming in the Shallow Interior Sea. 



General Characteristics of the Strata 63 

age witnessed the formation of extensive beds of limestone, 
sandstone, shales and coal. 

58. General Characteristics of the Strata. — It should be 
understood that lines of exact demarkation seldom exist be- 
tween the various strata. One stratum usually passes gradu- 
ally into another. Changes in the controlling influence which 
modified the deposition were usually not radical and they 
only obtained gradually. Thus, in passing from sandstone to 
limestone, the upper strata of the sandstone will usually be 
found somewhat calcareous and the lower strata of the lime- 
stone somewhat silicious. 

A like condition applies to the character of a stratum as 
varying throughout its geographic extent. The conditions at 
one point may have been such as to favor the formation of 
limestone deposits, while those at a point more or less remote 
may, during the same period, have been favorable to the forma- 
tion of shale. We thus find widely different strata belonging 
to the same age. Hence a stratum may within a short distance 
merge from a sandstone into a limestone, from a limestone 
into a shale, or the reverse, or from a coarse-grained stone to 
a fine and more impervious one. Or a stratum may even have 
been entirely lost by reason of a local elevation which raised 
che sea bed at that point above the sea level, thus preventing 
deposits, or by the existence of local ocean currents which 
might accomplish the same result. The more widespread the 
conditions controlling deposition, the more uniform is the 
character of a stratum throughout its extent. The character 
of the rock deposit which we may encounter in drilling is often 
highly problematic, and it is only by an extended examination 
of facts as they have been found to exist, and by their careful 
correlation, that we may arrive at conclusions as to what we 
must expect in new and untried localities. The farther the 
point in question lies from those where the character of the 
sub-strata is known, the greater is the uncertainty respect- 
ing it. 

59. Original Extent of Strata. — The original extent of 
the various strata of the district under consideration was much 
greater than the present geological map of the region would 




f».;i 



Mix* lj * i « !W * ! ' J i 






5 5 



- is h Jj -> ' 



n 



J 11110lllQillDIII 




66 Hydro-Geology 

indicate. Hundreds of feet of strata have been disintegrated 
and eroded by drainage waters. The Hudson River shale, 
while now encircling Central Wisconsin and Central Northern 
Illinois as a narrow belt (See Map No. 7), undoubtedly once 
covered a much greater area, as did the strata of the Niagara 
group. The section through Elk Mound shows the present 
geological condition, while the prolongation of the limiting 
lines of the strata would show their probable original extent. 

60. Deformation. — It must also be understood that the 
strata, although originally deposited as more or less uniform 
sheets, each overlying the strata below, do not exist in this 
uniform condition at present; for many disturbances, caused 
by upheavals and depressions in the crust, have opened cracks 
and fissures and have caused relative displacements of the 
strata, amounting in some cases to hundreds of feet. The 
principal axes of disturbance in this area are shown on Map 
No. 8. The extent of the cracks and fissures caused by these 
disturbances of the strata may be judged by a visit to any 
quarry. Their existence largely modifies the hydrological con- 
ditions of the various strata, frequently permitting the passage 
of the waters from one stratum to those below or above, and 
in the latter case, giving rise to springs. 

61. Slope. — The underlying Archean rocks slope down- 
ward in all directions from their outcrop in the extreme north- 
ern portion of this valley, being about 2,000 feet above sea 
level at their highest outcrop, and perhaps fully as much below 
sea level at their lowest point. As a rule, the super-incumbent 
strata follow this general slope. The Potsdam strata, how- 
ever, thicken rapidly to the southward, as does the lower mag- 
nesian above it, so that the higher strata have not as great 
a rate of inclination as the dip of the Archean rocks would 
indicate. 

The north-and-south section accompanying Map No. 7, 
and the section shown on Diagram 9, illustrates these remarks, 
and shows, moreover, that the surface follows the general dip 
of the strata at present, as it has done through all past geo- 
logical ages; the outcrops of the older geological deposits 
being found at the higher elevations. In traveling from the 



Slope 



6 7 



ni. xanor 



vaofcdv 



Noeiovw 



aoviaod — 



Al« NI7N0SCW 



\ «iA»<nvcnvM - 



snv? vn 



NOXOWl^d 



03T3K12S3 



3NI-IOW XCV3 

-111 onv-ii vsoa 

VMOI -UJOdN^AVO 



s 

< 

O 

< 

a 



68 



Hydro- Geology 



MAP No. 8 




Main Axis of Deformation and Dip of Strata. 



Pre-Glacial Drainage 69 

original Archean nucleus in any direction the traveler will 
descend in elevation while he ascends in geological succession,, 
passing over each of the deposits already described as he 
approaches the sea level. 

62. Waters of the Strata. — The dip of a stratum causes 
the flow of its waters from its outcrop toward the sea, and from 
these conditions arise springs and artesian wells where the 
stratum is intercepted by cracks or fissures or is artificially 
pierced by the drill. 

63. Upheaval. — During the ages here briefly reviewed, 
this territory had gradually arisen from the ocean. The car- 
boniferous deposits mark the last age of submergence in this 
area, with the exception of certain minor cretaceous areas in 
the western portion of the Mississippi Valley, areas which are 
of comparatively little consequence in this discussion. 

With the earliest appearance of the strata above the sea 
the formation of a drainage system began. The atmospheric 
agencies disintegrated the softer portions of the strata and 
carved the rocks into various forms as their varying hardness 
permitted. The drainage waters carried the residuary matter 
to the sea, thus excavating deep drainage valleys, and forming 
the later strata by the deposition of the material. The extent 
of this drainage erosion has already been briefly considered. 

64. Pre-Glacial Drainage. — The subsequent alteration of 
these drainage valleys has rendered it almost impossible to 
conceive of their early character and extent. The hill-tops 
were higher and bolder than at present. The valleys, deeper, 
more narrow and more rugged, occupied in many cases loca- 
tions quite different from those now occupied. The Lake 
Michigan valley was then occupied by a river which flowed 
from the north through the present southern extremity of 
the lake, at an elevation some hundred feet below the present 
lake level. This river, with a southwesterly course and passing 
probably not far from the present site of Bloomington, 111., 
emptied its waters into the Mississippi near the present 
mouth of the Illinois River. A light soil covered the valleys 
and the depressions of the hills, furnishing a scant vegetation 
for the sustenance of animal life. The mammoth and the 



/o Hydro- Geology 

mastodon, whose descendant, the modern elephant, is no 
longer native of this contient, roamed through these early 
valleys, probably a co-inhabitant with primitive man. 

The Mississippi River occupied to a considerable extent 
its present course. To this, however, there are -local excep- 
tions, notably at St. Paul, La Crosse, Rock Island and Keokuk, 
where the rock-bottomed rapids testify to a diversion from 
the ancient bed. The river then probably drained a much 
larger territory than at present. It also flowed at a level 
probably from ioo to 250 feet lower than its present one. It 
is difficult to picture the Upper Mississippi Valley as it then 
existed, but those who are familiar with the driftless area of 
Wisconsin, north and west of the Wisconsin River, including 
the dells and country about Devil's Lake, can form some con- 
ception of the early topography of this whole area. This re- 
gion of Wisconsin has been less altered than any other in the 
district considered; yet its valleys, which were then much 
deeper than now, have been more or less completely filled by 
the fluvial deposits of the drift period. 

The principal existing streams of this area, and to some 
extent their lateral valleys, were features of the topography of 
the age we are now considering, their appearance has been 
greatly modified by the subsequent events of the Glacial 
period. 

65. The Glacial Period. — From causes not thoroughly 
understood, the consideration of which is unnecessary for the 
purpose of this paper, there followed periods of great cold; 
of long winters and short summers and perhaps of greater 
average precipitation than at present, which fell as snow over 
the northern regions and which the heat of the short summer 
was wholly inadequate to melt. The result was the accumula- 
tion of vast snow fields, thousands of feet in thickness, similar 
to those which now exist in Greenland and Alaska and in the 
higher altitudes of the Alps, the Himalayas and the Rocky 
Mountains. The weight of the superincumbent mass, greatest 
in depth in the north where the summer heat never penetrated, 
not only compressed its lower layers into ice, but forced them 
to flow in great glaciers to the southward. Their extent in 



The Glacial Period 



71 



MAP No. 9 




First Glacial Epoch. 



72 Hydro-Geology 

this direction was limited only by the conditions of equilibrium 
between the melting of the ice mass and its motion. The ef- 
fects of the .flow of these vast ice rivers over the irregular and 
deeply marked drainage depressions can be easily understood. 
The rocky hillsides were worn and broken into dust and frag- 
ments ; huge boulders were torn off and transported hundreds 
of miles; and the valleys were filled up with the accumulating 
debris, which was more or less sorted and arranged by the 
sub-glacial waters. At least two epochs of glaciation, more or 
less distinct, can be traced in the Upper Mississippi Valley. 
See Maps Nos. 9 and 10. These have been perhaps the most 
marked causes in the creation of the present conditions, at 
least in so far as they are related to civilized life. To this 
period the agricultural lands of Minnesota, Iowa and Illinois 
owe their character and fertility, and their ability to maintain 
the population now within their borders. The drainage sys- 
tem was altered and the topography was greatly changed and 
re-wrought. Not only were the valleys filled up and the hills 
cut down, but a new class of topographical features was in- 
troduced. 

66. Work of Glaciers. — While flowing water can trans- 
port only debris of a coarseness depending upon the velocity, 
moving ice will transport the largest rocks as well as the 
finest material. On melting the ice deposits its heavier mate- 
rial, most of the finer particles being often lost in the floods 
which result from the melting of the ice. The material pushed 
up or deposited in this manner by the ice is termed a "mo- 
raine," and when it marks the termination of the ice-flow, a 
"terminal" moraine. Such is the Kettle Moraine, which ex- 
tends across the entire territory here considered. When 
formed on the side of the moving ice capes it is termed a 
"lateral" moraine, and two of these may be joined into a 
"medial" moraine. 

Upon the melting of detached ice masses covered by ex- 
tensive deposits of moraine material, this material is deposited 
about their edges, forming kettle holes, which result in lakes 
and swamps. 

The streams of water resulting from the rains and melting 



The Glacial Period 



73 



MAP No. IO. 




Second Glacial Epoch. 



74 Hydro-Geology 

ice, frequently cut open channels in the glaciers and sweep 
into it vast quantities of material which is there worked over 
and sorted by the flood, and deposited as a delta at the end of 
the glacier, or in long lines between the valleys of ice, where 
it is left, on the melting of the ice, ridge-like deposits called 
kames. 

Map No. 9 is a hypothetical map of the conditions of the 
Upper Mississippi Valley during what is usually termed the 
first glacial epoch, or at the time when the ice had reached its 
greatest southern extension. The limits of the ice are still 
marked by ranges of hills of morainic material, the nature and 
character of which offer conclusive evidence of its origin. 
Many of the topographical features of the first glacial epoch 
have been greatly modified by subsequent glacial events and 
by atmospheric and aqueous erosion during the time which has 
since elapsed. The kettle holes and lakes have been gradually 
filled and they are now mostly swamps or peat-bogs, and deep 
lines of drainage have been cut through the glaciated area. 
This process has been largely aided by the drainage waters 
of the second glacial epoch. During that epoch the extent of 
the ice capes was much more limited than in the first, as may 
be seen by reference to Map No. 10, and, as its period was 
more recent, its topographical features are more marked. 
Within the kettle moraine which marks its limits are found 
the numerous small lakes which form so striking a feature of 
Wisconsin and Minnesota scenery. 

67. Glacial Recession. — With the recession of the ice 
capes began the development of a new drainage topography. 
The floods which came from the melting ice, inundating great 
tracts of country, especially along the Mississippi River, gave 
rise to lacustrine deposits of considerable depth, known as 
"loess," a deposit consisting mostly of sand with some little 
clay, and so pervious as to offer little hindrance to the flow 
of drainage waters. The glacial waters had begun to excavate 
channels for their flow in their earlier deposits, and this process 
was continued in the lacustrine districts as the lacustrine con- 
ditions ceased to prevail. The old Michigan valley had been 
filled at the southern extremity of the present lake, and the 



Hydro-Geology 
MAP No. I I 



75 




Recession of the Glaciers. 



y6 Hydro-Geology 

waters being yet dammed in by the receding glacier from the 
present outlet of the lake, found a passage through the present 
valley of the Illinois River. The waters of Lake Agassiz, 
which was the progenitor of the present Lake Winnebago, 
with an area equal, at least, to the combined area of Lakes 
Superior, Michigan and Huron, flowed south through the val- 
ley of the Minnesota River, and through the lake which then 
existed in a portion of that valley, into the Mississippi. The 
other rivers of this area, while early receiving considerable 
drainage water from the melting ice, soon lost these waters as 
the ice receded, and settled down to act as the drains of their 
present respective drainage areas. 

68. Glacial Drainage. — The hpyothetical condition of the 
country at one period in the recession of the glaciers is shown 
in Map n. This map shows the location and outline of the 
southern extension of the glacial Lake Agassiz, and" also the 
outline of glacial Lake Minnesota. The latter, while shown 
on the map, was probably either entirely or partially drained 
at this period. The glacial River Warren occupied the present 
valley of the Minnesota River, and to its agency the dimen- 
sions of the present valley are due. This map also illustrates 
the main drainage features existing at this period, at which 
time the glacial River Warren drained Lake Agassiz. The 
Illinois River drained Lake Michigan, and through the latter 
probably Lakes Superior, Huron and Erie. At a somewhat 
earlier date, Lake Superior was drained through the Brule and 
St. Croix Rivers directly into the Mississippi, as shown by the 
dotted lines at the western end of the lake ; but, as the glacier 
receded, the outlet from Au Traine Bay to Little Bay de 
Noquet was uncovered, and at the period illustrated by the 
map the outlet was probably at this point. Later the discharge 
probably took place across the peninsula further to the east. 
Lakes Huron and Erie also probably drained into Lake Michi- 
gan at this period. It may, however, be considered doubtful 
whether all of the features shown on Map No. n were con- 
temporary. 

At an earlier period in the recession of the ice cape the 
Chippewa, Black, Wisconsin, Rock and Fox Rivers had re- 



Post-Glacial Drainage 77 

ceived from it a portion of their drainage waters, which had 
undoubtedly outlined the channels in which they now flow; 
but at the time illustrated in this map they had lost these 
waters and they carried only the flow due to the rainfall and 
drainage of their own watersheds. 

The vast floods from the melting ice had greatly changed 
the earlier glacial deposits in these valleys. The heterogeneous 
masses of clay, stone and sand were, in many cases, sorted, re- 
wrought and redeposited. As the ice still further receded, the 
present outlet of Lake Michigan was uncovered, as was also 
the Hudson Bay outlet to the valley of the Red River of the 
North. These outlets being at lower elevation than those of- 
fered by the Illinois and Mississippi Rivers, these rivers also 
lost the glacial drainage which hitherto, as the only outlets, 
they had been receiving from the melting ice capes. In these 
rivers the results due to the loss of the drainage waters was 
much more marked and the changes in their conditions were 
more radical than in the smaller rivers of this area. 

69. Post-Glacial Drainage. — As the drainage valleys 
were deprived of waters from the melting ice, their carrying 
power decreased and they began to build up their beds, which 
they had formerly excavated so as to form a valley commen- 
surate in size and inclination with their modern capacities. 
The local streams, dependent only on local rainfall and drain- 
age area, had also begun to develop as the country was un- 
covered by the receding ice. These in the main followed such 
depressions as the ice capes had formed. Rarely, if ever, in the 
glacial or local drainage streams, were the earlier drainage 
valleys closely followed throughout their entire extent. The 
old valleys having been filled, frequently to their tops, it was 
often as easy and as natural for the modern stream to pass 
from valley to valley between two hills which formerly sepa- 
rated valleys, as to continue in its ancient course. 

As the waters cut through the drift, the rocky hillsides 
were frequently encountered, and these caused a diminution 
in the amount of cutting by the stream, while the excavation 
below still went on. Thus have been formed many falls and 
rapids both in the Mississippi River and in its tributaries. 






78 



Hydro-Geology 



The drift itself, as modified by the glacial waters, possesses 
largely a locally developed stratification, ordinarily somewhat 
limited in its geographic extent. 

The following sections of the drift show its variation in 
depth and general character, which will be seen to be subject 
to great local differences. 

SECTIONS OF DRIFT. 



Bloomington, McLean Co., 111. 


Bushnell, McDonough Co., 111. 


Depth 


Depth 


in feet. Material. 


in feet. Material. 


10 Soil and brown clay. 


12 Yellow clay. 


40 Blue clay. 


8 Yellow clay and sand. 


60 Gravel. 


25 Yellow clay. 


13 Black mucky soil. 


15 Blue and yellow clay. 


89 Hardpan. 


18 Blue clay and sand. 


6 Black soil. 


29 Blue clay. 


34 Blue clay. 


3 Blue clay and sand. 


2 Quicksand. 


4 Sand. 


254 feet. 


114 feet. 


Clinton, DeWitt Co., 111. 


Mt. Carroll, Carroll Co., 111. 


Depth 


Depth 


in feet. Material. 


in feet. Material. 


15 Soil and yellow clay. 


2 Soil. 


30 Hard blue clay. 


13 Yellow clay. 


2 Black mould. 


2 Blue clay. 


8 Drab clay. 


15 Reddish clay and gravel. 


8 Black mould and drift wood. 


2 Tough blue clay. 


16 Drab clay. 


3 Coarse stratified gravel. 


2 Drift wood, etc. 


11 Pure yellow sand. 


26 Drab clay. 


5 Black mucky clay. 


12 Hardpan. 





10 Green clay. 


53 feet. 


t 


Minneapolis (Lakewood Cemetery) 


133 feet. 


Depth 


Lake City, Minn. 


in feet. Material. 


Depth 


135 Gravel and sand. 


in feet. Material. 


3 Yellow clay. 


2 Black soil. 


74 Blue till. 


40 Yellow clay. 


36 Gravel and sand. 


160 Gravel and sand. 


8 Boulders. 


5 Fine loam clay. 






256 feet. 
207 feet. 

Within the driftless areas, the ice floods had filled the 
lower valleys with detritus brought down by the flood waters, 
and had thus modified, although to a less extent, the topog- 
raphy of this region. 

The major part of the glaciated area, outside of the kettle 
moraine, is, however, an extended plain, modified by other 
morainic deposits and by drainage valleys, which have since 






Post-Glacial Drainage 79 

been somewhat developed. At the close of the glacial ages the 
ancient topography had been destroyed; while the new was 
yet in its infancy, and it is still but slightly developed; so 
slightly, in fact, that imperfect drainage is the rule on the 
plain between the rivers. 

The common law of topographical development in the 
glacial area is readily understood. The circumstances of 
glaciation establish the limits of the watersheds; the waters 
subsequently flowing from the receding ice frequently outlin- 
ing the location of the streams themselves. The flood waters 
carve their valleys in proportion to their amount and eleva- 
tion, and gradually excavate them until their fall from source 
to mouth is only sufficient to cause a flow of their waters, 
carrying perhaps more or less of excavated silt in time of 
flood. The water has then reached its base level, and can go 
no lower, but works backward and forward across the valley, 
widening but not deepening it. The depth to which a stream 
can excavate its valley is then subject to the controlling fea- 
tures of its point of discharge, which in the case of the rivers 
of this region is formed by the Mississippi River and Lake 
Michigan. Hence, the nearer these outlets a valley is located, 
the more marked is its character and depth. Few rivers in 
this area have reached their base level, for the time since the 
glacial age has been too short. The Illinois River, in its 
lower course (as has been already mentioned), is an excep- 
tion, the glacial waters having reduced it to a lower grade 
than is suitable for the discharge of its present waters laden 
with their normal burden of silt. Hence the low lands are 
flooded and the silt is deposited, gradually raising the bed of 
the river; and this process if allowed to proceed unobstructed, 
will finally raise the lower river to its normal base level. 

Thus have been formed the surface and underlying rocks 
of the Upper Mississippi Valley. Volumes have been written 
descriptive of the ages here so briefly reviewed and of the 
conditions which we have been obliged to pass with a glance, 
and to these the reader must turn for further details. Enough 
has been said, however, to fix the general sequence of events 
and the general geological condition. For practical purposes, 



80 Hydro-Geology 

each district should be studied in detail and the whole sub- 
ject should be examined with reference to the particular ques- 
tions involved. 

70. Hydrological Conditions. — As a source of water sup- 
ply the Potsdam sandstone is one of the most important of 
the formations embraced in the territory under discussion, and 
its character has been examined at some length. From this 
source are derived numerous artesian and deep wells, which 
have been developed throughout the area shown on the gen- 
eral geological map, No. 7. 

As a source of water, the St. Peter sandstone is next in 
importance in this area. This deposit lies above the Potsdam, 
being separated from it by the lower magnesium limestone, 
and is first encountered by the drill. The elevation of its out- 
crop being less than that of the Potsdam, its waters have not 
usually as great a head and consequently it does not as often 
furnish flowing waters. 

It has already been stated that the drift sheet which cov- 
ers a large proportion of this area contains more or less ex- 
tended deposits of sand and gravel which frequently offer 
available sources of water. These deposits are sometimes so 
extended that they may produce many of the phenomena ob- 
servable in wells from the lower strata, such as artesian flows. 
Such results were obtained at Belle Plaine, Iowa, and De 
Kalb., 111. The irregularity in the deposition of these deposits 
makes the watershed of any particular supply hard to deter- 
mine. Its determination may be, however, a matter of con- 
siderable importance, especially if its source be from districts 
from which it may receive organic contamination. 

In considering the hydrological conditions of the various 
strata it should be noted that all are to some extent water- 
bearing. Even where the ratio of absorption is comparatively 
insignificant, the cracks and fissures often play an important 
part. The writer is able to furnish only a limited number of 
observations on the rocks of the area here considered, and 
these are given in Table 24, together with data of other and 
similar rocks from other localities. 

Most of the rocks mentioned in this table are from quar- 



Hydrological Conditions 



81 



ries furnishing- building stone. They are, therefore, better 
and less porous than the average bed rock. 



TABLE 24 



Table Showing Percentage of Absorption (by Volume) of Various 
Geological Strata. 



Formation. 



Location. 



Water in 
100 parts 
of rock. 



Authority. 



Sandstone 

Sandstone, another specimen . 
Calcareous freestone . . . . 
Lower tertiary, sandstone 

(pure quartzose) 

Upper chalk . 

Devonian limestone . . . . 

Oolite sandstone 

Oolite limestone 

Old red sandstone 

Hornblende granite 

Gabbro 

Dolomite 

Limestone 

Limestone . 

Sandstone . „ 

Dolomite . 

Dolomite 

Dolomite 

Dolomite 

Limestone 

Sandstone .......... 

Sandstone 

Sand and Grayel ... 
'Dry clay . ....... 

Trenton limestone 

Galena limestone 

Berea sandstone 

Bedford limestone 



Grand Beauchamp, France 
Grand Beauchamp, France 
Grand Beauchamp, France 

Grand Beauchamp, France 

Ivry, France 

Boulogne, France . . . . 
Cheltenham, England . . 
Cheltenham, England . . 
Gloucestershire, England . 
East St. Cloud, Minn. . . 

Duluth, Minn 

Joliet, 111 

Quincy, 111 

Quincy, 111 

Fond du Lac, Wis 

Lemont, 111 

Winona, Minn 

Red Wing, Minn. . . . 
Mantorville, Minn. 
Big Sturgeons Bay, Wis. . 
Ft. Snelling, Minn. . . . 
Jordan, Minn 



Hockford, 111. 
Rockford,Ill. 
Berea, Ohio 
Bedford, Ind. 



13.15 

4.37 

18.03 

29.00 
24.10 

0.08 

23.98 

12.15 

1160 

.42 

.29 

106 
.55 

1.35 

4.81 

1.12 

4.76 

2.5 

5.55 
.25 

6.25 
12.5 
33 to 40 
12. 

2.10 

4.2 

6.6 

4.4 



M. Delessee. 
M. Delessee. 
M. Delessee. 

M. Delessee. 
M. Delessee. 
M. Delessee. 
E. Wetherel. 
E. Wetherel. 
E. Wetherel. 
G. P. Merrill. 
G.P.Merrill. 
G. P. Merrill. 
G.P.Merrill. 
G.P.Merrill. 
G. P. Merrill. 
G.P.Merrill. 
G P.Merrill. 
G.P.Merrill. 
G.P.Merrill 
G.P.Merrill. 
G.P.Merrill. 
G.P.Merrill. 
R.J. Hinton 
R. J. Hinton. 
I). W. Mead. 
D. W. Mead. 
D. W. Mead. 
D. W. Mead. 



From what has been said concerning the variation in the 
character of a stratum throughout its geographical extent, it 
will readily be understood that no simple statement of ratio 
of absorption will furnish a sufficiently reliable indication of 
the water-bearing qualities of a stratum in all places. We 
know, however, that the strata are saturated to an unknown 
depth, the amount of water varying with the porosity of the 
strata, and with their physical condition as regards cracks and 
fissures. This area, like many others, is marked by an alter- 
nation in the deposition of rocks varying largely in porosity, 



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8 4 



Hydro-Geology 



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86 Hydro-Geology 

strata of high porosity frequently lying between those com- 
paratively impervious. This variation is somewhat equalized 
by cracks and fissures, but the difference is still so marked 
as to create a great difference in the character of the flow. 

The outcrop of these highly pervious strata at the higher 
elevations in the valley gives rise to hydrostatic pressure with- 
in the strata, a pressure which is not wholly equalized by the 
transfusion of waters due to porosity or to rupture of the 
strata. Hence, in the lower portions of the valley, these 
waters often come to the surface with considerable head 
through natural channels as springs, or through artificial 
channels as flowing wells. 

The existence of water in the strata above renders most 
efficient aid in confining these low drainage waters. Without 
this their immense pressures would undoubtedly bring them 
to the surface. Ordinarily, the difference in elevation between 
the head of the deeper waters and that of the ground water is 
very limited. At Ottawa, 111., however, it amounts to about 
180 feet, and at Aurora, 111., to 90 feet. 

Table 25 gives the thickness of the various geological de- 
posits in the Upper Mississippi Valley, encountered in sinking 
various artesian wells. 

Many of the other deposits of this territory may be made 
available as sources of water supply by driving infiltration 
tunnels through them of sufficient extent to allow the infiltra- 
tion of the amount of water needed. 

71. General Geological Conditions. — Table 23, already 
referred to, gives the geological formations of the United 
States, together with those represented in the Upper Missis- 
sippi Valley, and their approximate thickness through that 
territory. In other portions of the United States consider- 
able differences exist in the nature and occurrence of the local 
geological formations. Their natural history, however, is sim- 
ilar to that of the territory above described, and should be 
studied in detail when considering hydrological problems 
which are influenced by the geological structure. 

Map No. 1, which shows the occurrence or outcroppings 
at the surface of the various geological deposits of the United 
States, has already been referred to. 



General Geological Conditions 87 

The glacial sheet, which has been described in some de- 
tail with reference to the Upper Mississippi Valley, and which 
was there developed perhaps to its greatest extent, extended 
in a broad and irregular belt across North America from the 
Pacific to the Atlantic, its approximate borders being shown 
on Map No. 12, which shows the Pleistocene deposits of the 
United States. This map also shows that in comparatively 
recent geological times, the Gulf of Mexico extended to and 
above the mouth of the Ohio River, and that a broad belt of 
comparatively recent sedimentary deposits has been formed 
in the old gulf, which, as the land has gradually risen from 
the sea, has been pushed further and further to the southward, 
very much in the same manner that the Mississippi River is 
now forming new land in the Gulf of Mexico. In this way, 
there has been formed the coastal plain which stretches in a 
broad band from Texas to Long Island, including the entire 
area of some of our southern states. 

LITERATURE. 

A large amount of valuable data in regard to General Geology and Hydro- 
Geology will be found in the publications of the U. S. Geo. Survey, and of the 
various State Geological Surveys. The following articles are especially re- 
ferred to: 
W. J. McGee, Pleistocene History of Northwestern Iowa, nth Report U. S. 

G. S., p. 199. 
F. H. Newell, Public Lands and Their Water Supplies. 16th Report U. S. 

G. S., p. 463. 
R. Hay, Water Resources of the Great Plain. 16th Report U. S. G. S., p. 541. 
Frank Leverett, Water Resources of Indiana and Ohio. 18th Report U. S. G. 

S., Part 4, P. 425- 
N. H. Darton, Preliminary Report of Artesian Waters in a Portion of the 

Dakotas. 17th Annual Report U. S. G. S., Part 2, p. 7. 
Frank Leverett, The Water Resources of Illinois. 17th Annual Report U. S. 

G. S., Part 2, p. 7. 

D. W. Mead, Hydro-Geology of the Upper Mississippi Valley. Journal of the 

Asso. Eng. Soc, Vol. 13, No. 7, July, '94. 
J. C. Branner, Geology and its Relation to Topography. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 

October, 1897, p. 473. 
P. Vedel, The Geology and Hydrology of the Great Lakes. Journal Asso. Eng. 

Soc, June, 1896. 
Joseph Lucas, Hydro-Geology of Lower Green Sand of Surrey and Hampshire. 

Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. 61, p. 200. 

E. H. Barbour, Nebraska Geological Survey, Vol. 1, 1903. 
Iowa Geological Survey, Vol. 6, 1897. 

W. G. Tight, Drainage Modifications in S. E. Ohio and adjacent parts of West 
Virginia and Kentucky. Professional Paper No. 13, U. S. G. S. 



88 Hydro-Geology 



T. C. Chamberlain, Terminal Moraine of the Second Glacial Epoch. 3rd An- 
nual Report, U. S. G. S., p. 295. 
I. C. Russell, Existing Glaciers of the United States. 5th Annual Report U. 

S. G. S., p. 309. 
T. C. Chamberlain. The Rock Scourings of the Great Ice Invasion. 7th Annual 

Report, U. S. G. S., p. 155. 
H. F. Reid, Glacier Bay and its Glaciers. 17th Annual Report, U. S. G. S., p. 421. 
G. O. Smith, Glaciers of Mt. Rainier. 18th Annual Report, U. S. G. S., Part 

II, p. 341- 
G. K. Gilbert, Recent Earth Movements in the Great Lake Regions. 18th 

Annual Report, U. S. G. S., Part II, p. 595. 
F. E. Matthes, Glacial Sculpture of the Big Huron Mountains. 21st Annual 

Report, U. S. G. S., Part II, p. 163. 
Warren Upham, The Glacial Lake Agassiz. Monograph XXV, U. S. G. S. 
C. H. Stone, The Glacial Gravels of Maine and Their Associated Deposits. 

Monograph XXXIV, U. S. G. S. 
Frank Leverett, The Illinois Glacial Lobe. Monograph XXXVIII, U. S. G. S. 
J. S. Diller, Tertiary Revolution in Topography of the Pacific Coast. 14th 

Annual Report, U. S. G. S., p. 403. 
Chamberlain and Salisbury, Geology, 2 Vols. Henry Holt & Co. 
Le Conte, Elements of Geology. American Book Co. 
Geikie, Text Book of Geology. Macmillan & Co. 
Dana, Manual of Geology. American Book Co. 
Winchell, Geological Studies. Griggs. 
Wright, The Ice Age in North America. Appleton & Co. 
Wright, Man and the Glacial Period. Appleton & Co. 
Geikie, The Great Ice Age. Appleton & Co. 



8 9 



CHAPTER VI. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

72. Bearing of Physiography. — Similarity in Geological, 
Topographical and Climatic conditions are essential to simi- 
larity in Hydrographic conditions. For the purpose of hydro- 
logical study and investigation, it is therefore important to 
determine the geographical limits of regions having similar 
physical conditions, in order that the limits within which sim- 
ilar hydrological results may be expected, may be understood. 
The physiographic regions of a country may be consid- 
ered with reference to various physical features. Generally 
the limits of such regions are defined by the leading topo- 
graphical features common to certain geographical limits. 

On this basis the principal physiographic regions of the 
United States, in accordance with leading topographical fea- 
tures, are as follows: 

New England Plateau. 

Atlantic Coastal Plain. 

Piedmont Plateau. 

Appalachian Mountains. 

The Allegheny Plateau. 

Gulf Plains. 

Ozark Mountains. 

The Prairies. 

Wisconsin Highlands. 

The Great Plains. 

The Rocky Mountains. 

Colorado Plateau. 

The Lava Pleateau. 

The Great Basin. 

Pacific Coast Mountains. 
These regions may be still further subdivided in accord- 
ance with various local conditions, and for local study and 
investigation this should be done. (J. W. Powell, Physio- 
graphic Regions of the U. S.) 





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92 Physiography of the United States 

73. Climatic Subdivisions. — Certain subdivisions of these 
physiographic regions correspond more or less closely with 
the climatic subdivisions of the United States, which have 
been adopted by the United States Weather Bureau, as fol- 
lows : 

New England States. 

Middle Atlantic States. 

South Atlantic States. 

Lower Lake Region. 

Upper Lake Region. 

Ohio Valley and Tennessee. 

Eastern Gulf. 

Western Gulf. 

Upper Mississippi Valley. 

Missouri Valley. 

Extreme North-west. 

Northern Slope. 

Middle Slope. 

Southern Slope. 

Southern Plateau. 

Middle Plateau. 

Northern Plateau. 

Northern Pacific. 

Middle Pacific. 

Southern Pacific. 
(Waldo, Meteorology, pp. 317-363 inclusive.) 

See Map No. 13, Showing General Elevation of the United States. 

LITERATURE. 

National Geographic Monographs. American Book Co. 

R. S. Tarr, Elementary Physical Geography. Maximillian & Co. 

W. M. Davis, Physical Geography. Ginn & Co., 1901. 

T. H. Huxley, Physiography. Maximillian & Co. 

J. W. Redway, Elementary Physical Geography. Chas. Scribner & Sons. 

C. R. Dreyer, Lessons in Physical Geography. American Book Co. 

I. C. Russell, North America. Appleton & Co. 

N. S. Shaler, Nature and Man in America. Scribner's Sons. 

J. D. Whitney, The United States, 2 Vols. Little, Brown & Co. 

United States Geological Survey, Annual Reports, Monographs and Bulletins. 

I. C. Russell, Rivers of North America. Putnam's Sons. 

G. K. Gilbert, Topographical Features of Lake Shores. 5th An. Report, U. 

S. G. S., p. 75- 
C. A. White, Geology and Physiography of a portion of Northwestern Colorado. 

9th Am. Report, U. S. G. S., p. 683. 
C. W. Hayes, Phynography of the Chattanooga District in Tennessee. Georgia 

and Alabama. 17th An. Report. U. S. G. S., Part II, p. t. 



93 



CHAPTER VII. 

RAINFALL OF THE UNITED STATES. 

74. Influence of Rainfall. — The quantity of water flow- 
ing in the streams or strata, and the amount available for 
navigation, water power, agriculture, water supply, or other 
uses, depends primarily on the rainfall. The important fac- 
tors in most cases are : 

First, the quantity of rainfall. 

Second, its distribution throughout the year, and 

Third, its disposal. 

75. Quantity and Distribution of Rainfall. — The annual 
quantity of rainfall throughout the United States varies 
greatly at different points, as will be seen from Map No. 14, 
which shows the distribution of the average annual rainfall 
throughout the United States. From this map it will be noted 
that "from the great plains westward the lines of equal rain- 
fall are, approximately, north and south. In the Southern 
States, east of Texas, they are approximately parallel to the 
Gulf coast. In the Eastern States they are approximately 
parallel to the Atlantic coast. In the Lake region, while they 
approach parallelism to the parallels of latitude, yet there are 
some variations, evidently due to the effects of these great 
bodies of fresh water and their temperature at different sea- 
sons of the year. In the vicinity of Cape Hatteras and on the 
Peninsula of Florida other influences come into play, modify- 
ing the direction of the lines of equal rainfall. Cape Hatteras 
is the point of highest rainfall along the Atlantic coast, due, 
undoubtedly, to the seasonal winds which pass at sea and 
reach, more or less, this prominent point. On the Peninsula 
of Florida we approach the tropical region and approximate 
the laws of tropical rainfall. East of the ninety-fifth meridian 
the rainfall decreases as the latitude increases. West of that 
the general topography of the continent causes the lines to 
run north and south. 



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96 Rainfall of the United States 

"In general the rainfall decreases also with the elevation 
above sea level. This is very noticeable in passing along, for 
instance, the parallel of latitude 40°. The annual rainfall on 
the coast in New Jersey ranges from 40 to 50 inches. As we 
pass westward we come to the area where the rainfall is about 
40 inches. This rainfall continues along the parallel until the 
vicinity of the Mississippi River is reached, when it decreases 
with the comparatively rapid ascent of the slope to the great 
plains. By the time Kansas is reached the annual rainfall has 
fallen to 30 inches ; in western Kansas it is only 20 inches, and 
in passing the boundary of western Kansas we pass the an- 
nual rainfall line of 15 inches. On the Pacific slope the phe- 
nomena are more complex, because of the prevailing winds 
and the more rapid ascent from sea level in the region of the 
Sierra Nevadas."* 

Beside the general distribution of rainfall shown on the 
map, it is important to note the effects of mountain ranges 
on the rainfall. This is best seen on the Pacific coast, where 
it will be noted that the western winds, laden with moisture 
from the Pacific, are cooled by contact with the mountains. 
which cause a heavy rainfall on the windward side of the 
range, while the rainfall on the leeward side is much below 
the average. 

76. Variations in Annual Rainfall. — Great variations 
take place in the annual rainfall of every locality. Sometimes 
the rainfall of a locality will average considerably below the 
mean for a term of years, and then will average considerably 
above the mean for possibly a somewhat similar term. As a 
general rule, however, there is no great regularity or uni- 
formity in the annual variations, but the rainfall exceeds or 
falls below the mean in a seemingly lawless manner. 

The variation in annual rainfall at various selected sta- 
tions in the United States is shown on diagram No. 10, on 
which is also indicated the mean for each station. From this 
diagram the annual variation and the relation of such varia- 
tion to the mean are clearly shown. 

* Bulletin C, Weather Bureau, page 13. 



Variations in Annual Rainfall 
DIAGRAM IO 

VARIATION IN ANNUAL RAINFALL AT VARIOUS LOCALITIES. 

IN THE UNITED STATES. 



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98 Rainfall of the United States 



Some idea of the limiting conditions, and the average re- 
lations of extremely dry and extremely wet periods can also 
be determined from this diagram. 

77. Periodic Variation in Rainfall. — The maximum and 
minimum monthly rainfall occurs at each locality at fairly 
definite periods. The climatic conditions are, in a general 
way, fairly constant, and as the cycle of seasons change, they 
produce conditions favorable or unfavorable to the precipita- 
tion of rain. These vary largely from year to year, but have, 
nevertheless, the same general character. 

Diagrams n and 12 show typical annual fluctuations of 
the rainfall for various months in the year at a number of 
places throughout the United States. More extended types 
of the monthly distribution of precipitation in the United 
States is shown on Diagram 13. 

78. Relative Importance of Rainfall Data. — As far as the 
influence on stream flow, and the engineering problems di- 
rectly connected therewith is concerned, the periods of win- 
ter and spring rains are the most important, while for agri- 
cultural purposes the rains of most importance are the rains 
of the spring and summer. 

Averages of rainfall are only of general interest. For the 
detailed consideration of hydrological study, the actual vari- 
ation in yearly rainfall, and the actual distribution throughout 
the various years is of greatest importance. 

The question of the frequency of occurrence of periods 
of extreme rainfall, and the rate of rainfall for such periods 
are matters of importance in both engineering and agricul- 
ture. If rain commonly occurs at times when most needed, 
and under conditions where it can be best utilized, it becomes 
of great value; whereas its occurrence at the wrong season, 
and under unfavorable conditions, may make it of no value, 
or of positive detriment. 

For agricultural purposes, light rains at frequent inter- 
vals are much to be preferred to heavy and extended rains, 
for in the former case much of the moisture will be directly 



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Periodic Variations in Rainfall 
DIAGRAM I I 



99 



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FLUCTUATION OF RAINFALL 



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DIAGRAM 13. 

Types of Monthly Distribution of Precipitation in the United States. 

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102 Rainfall of the United States 

utilized for plant life, while in the latter, much of it will be 
lost by passing from the surface and in producing floods in 
the streams. 

79. Intensity of Rainfall. — To the engineer, for the pur- 
pose of the design of sewerage and drainage works, the ques- 
tion of the maximum rainfall, and the greatest length of time 
for which such rainfall may extend, becomes important. Rain- 
falls of great intensity usually occur for only limited periods 
of time. There is no sufficiently definite relation, however, be- 
tween intensity and time to admit of a precise expression by a 
mathematical formula. It is possible, however, by platting 
the various recorded rainfalls with reference to the rate of 
fall, to produce a diagram on which may be drawn a curve 
showing the highest intensity of any individual storm which 
is likely to occur for the locality for which the data is pre- 
pared, and also to construct various other curves which may 
be regarded as showing the relative probable limits of the 
reoccurence of similar conditions. 

Professor A. N. Talbot has prepared several diagrams 
(see Diagrams 14, 15, 16 and 17) which show the rates of 
maximum rainfall in various portions of the United States, 
on which he has platted curves from a formula he has pro- 
posed.* The upper curve he terms "The curve of rare rain- 

6 
fall," and its equation is Y= 

The lower he terms "The curve of ordinary maximum 

1-75 

rainfall," and its equation is Y= 

.25 x 
In these formulae Y is the rate of rainfall in inches per 
hour for the time x expressed in hours. The points on the 
diagram represent the actual records of individual storms. It 
will be noted that the curve of rare rainfall has been some- 
times exceeded. 



* Prof. A. N. Talbot, Rates of Maximum Rainfall. Technograph, 1891-92. 



Intensity of Rainfall 



103 



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104 



Rainfall in the United States 



DIAGRAM 15. 





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Intensity of Rainfall 



105 



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Rainfall of the United States 



DIAGRAM 17 





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Intensity of Rainfall 



107 



A similar curve is shown by Diagram 18, which is re- 
duced from the Report of .the Chief of the Weather Bureau 
for the year 1896-7. On this plate, Curve A shows the curve 
of probable maximum intensity for Washington, and B, for 
Savannah, Ga. These curves are constructed by selecting the 
rainfalls of maximum intensity for certain consecutive periods 
of time. The full line shown on the plate was constructed 
from the combined records of excessive rainfalls in the cities 
of Boston, Providence, New York, Philadelphia, and Wash- 
ington, representing the observations for an aggregate of 
about seventy years, and was the curve adopted by the en- 
gineers making the Report on the Sewerage of the District of 
Columbia in 1890. 

DIAGRAM 18 

Cm« oTTrobaMeiraxIfflnat Intensity of RaiefoH 



I 

1 

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Table 26, from Bulletin C of the United States Weather 
Bureau, shows the heaviest rainfalls on record at selected rep- 
resentative stations throughout the United States, and Table 
27 from the same source shows the annual and seasonal aver- 
ages, seasonal variations, and quantity of rainfall for each state 
of the United States. 



io8 



Rainfall in the United States 



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09 



TABLE 27. 

Annual and Seasonal Average of Rainfall for each State 



Area in 
square miles 



Spring. 



Summer. 



Au(umn. 



Winter. 



Annual. 



Seasonal 
variation. 



Alabama . 
Arizona... 
Arkansas. 
California. 
Colorado . 



Connecticut <,.».., 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 



Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Indian Territory. 
Iowa 



Kentucky. 
Louisiana. 

Maine 

Maryland 



Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi...... 

Missouri 



Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada , 

New Hampshire. 
New Jersey 



New Mexico 

New York , 

North Carolina., 
North Dakota.., 
Ohio 



Oregon 

Pennsylvania.... 
Rhode Island .... 
South Carolina.-. 
South Dakota.... 



Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington... 
West Virginia. 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



Total 

Average . 



52,250 
113,020 

53, 850 
158, 360 
103,925 

4,990 

2,050 

70 

58, 680 

59,475 

84, 800 
56, 650 
36,350 
31,400 
56,025 

82,080 
40,400 
48, 720 
33,040 
12,210 

8,315 
58,915 
83, 305 
46,810 
69,415 

146,080 
77,510 

110,700 
9,305 
7,815 

122,580 
49,170 
52,250 
70, 795 
41,060 

96, 030 
45,215 
1,250 
30, 570 
77,650 

42, 050 

265, 780 

84,970 

9, 505 

42, 450 

69, 180 
24, 780 
50, 040 
97, 890 



2,985,850 



Inches. 

14.9 
1.3. 

14.3 
6.2 
4.2 

11.1 
10.2 
11.0 
10.2 
12,4 

4.4 
10.2 
11.0 
10.6 

8.3 

8.9 
12.4 
13.7 
11.1 
11.4 

11.6 
7.9 
6.5 
14.9 
10. 

4.'2 
8,9 
2.3 
9.8 
11.7 

1.4 
8.5 

12.9 
4.6 

10.0 

9.8 
10.3 
11.9 

9.8 

7.2 

13.5 
8.1 
3.4 
9.2 

10.9 



10.9 
7.8 
4.3 



9.2 



Inches. 
13.8 
4.3 
12.5 
0.3 
5.5 

12.5 
11.0 
12.4 
21.4 
15.6 

2.1 
11.2 
11.7 
11.0 
12.4 

11.9 
12.5 
15.0 
10.5 
12.4 

11.4 
9.7 
10.8 
12.6 
12.4 

4.9 
10.9 

0.8 
12.2 
13.-3 

5.8 
10.4 
16.6 

8.0 
11.9 

2.7 
12.7 
10.7 
16.2 

9.7 

12.5 
8.6 
1.5 
12.2 
12.5 

3.9 
12.9 
11.6 

3.6 



Inches. 
10.0 
2.2 
11.0 
3.5 
2.8 

11.7 
10.0 
9.4 
14.2 
10.7 

3.6 
9.0 

9.7 
8.9 
8.1 

6.7 
9.7 
10.8 
12.3 
10.7 

11.9 
9.2 
5.8 

10.1 
9.1 

2.6 
4.9 
1.3 
11.4 
11.2 

3.5 
9.7 
12.0 
2.8 
9.0 

10.5 
10.0 
11.7 
9.7 



10.2 
7.6 
2.2 

11.4 
9.5 



Inches. 
14.9 

3.1 
12.8 
11.9 

2.3 

11.5 
9.6 
9.0 
9.1 

12.7 

7.0 
7.7 
10.3 
5.7 
4.1 

3.5 
11.8 
14.4 
11.1 

9.5 

11.7 
7.0 
3.1 

15.4 
6.5 

2.3 
2.2 
8.2 
10.7 
11. 1 

2.0 
7.9 
12.2 
1.7 
9.1 

21.0 
9.5 

12.4 
9.7 
2.5 

14.5 
6.0 
3.5 
9.3 
9.7 

16.8 

10.0 

5.2 

1.6 



Inches. 
53.6 
10.9 
50.6 
21.9 
14.8 

46.8 
40.8 
41.8 
54.9 
61.4 

17.1 
38.1 
42.7 
36.2. 
32.9 

31.0 
46.4 
53.9 
45.0 
44.0 



33.8 
26.2 
53.0 
38.0 

14.0 

26.9 

7.6 

44.1 

47.3 

12.7 
36.6 
53.7 
17.1 
40.0 

44.0 
42.5 
46.7 
45.4 
22.9 

50.7 
30.3 
10.6 
42.1 

42.6 



39.8 
42.8 
32.5 
11.6 



Inches. 
1.6 



40.0 
2.4 

1.1 
1.1 
1.4 
2,4 
L5 

3.3 
1.5 
1.-2 
1.9 
3.0 

3.4 
1.3 
1.4 
1.2 
1.3 

1.0 
1.4 
3.5 
1.5 
1.9 

2.1 
5.0 
4.0 
1.2 
1.2 

4,1 
1.3 
1.4 
4.7 
1.3 

7.8. 
1.3. 
1.2 
1.7 
3.9 

1.4 
1.4 
2.3 
1.3 
1.3 

4.3 
1.4 
2.2 
2.7 



10. 



8.3 



8.6 



36. 3 



3.0 



no Rainfall of the United States 

LITERATURE. 

U. S. Weather Bureau, Annual Reports; also Monthly Weather Review. 

C. A. Schott, Tables and Results of the Precipitation in Rain and Snow in the 

U. S. Smithsonian Cont. to Knowledge, No. 222, 1874. 
H. H. C. Dunwoody, Charts and Tables showing the Geographical Distribution 

of Rainfall in the U. S. U. S. Signal Service, Professional Paper 

No. IX, 1883. 
M. W. Harrington, Rainfall and Snow of the U. S. Bulletin C, U. S. Weather 

Bureau, 1894. 
A. J. Henry, Rainfall of U. S. Bulletin D, U. S. Weather Bureau, 1897. 
Turneaure and Russell, Public Water Supply, Chapter IV, Rainfall. 
The Causes of Rainfall. Prof. W. M. Davis. Journal of the New England 

W. Wks. Ass'n, 1901. 
Excessive Precipitation in the United States. Monthly Weather Review, Jan- 
uary, 1897. 
Rates of Maximum Rainfall. Prof. A. N. Talbot. Technograph, 1891. 
Tables of Excessive Precipitation of Rain at Chicago, 111., from 1889 to 1897, 

inclusive. Edmund Duryea, Jr. Journal of the Western Soc. of 

Eng., Vol. 4, Nos. 1 and 2, 1899. 
Excessive Rainfalls Considered with Special Reference to Their Appearance in 

Populous Districts. Captain R. L. Hoxie. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 

June, 1891. 
Does the Wind Cause the Diminished Amount of Rain Collected in Elevated 

Rain Gauges? Desmond Fitzgerald. Jour. Asso. of Eng. Soc, 1884. 
Distribution of Rainfall during the Great Storm of October 3rd and 4th, 1876. 

Francis. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 1878. 
The New England Rain-storm of February 10-14, 1886. Engineering News, 

1886, Vol. 15, p. 216. 
Rainfall Observations at Philadelphia. Reports Phila. Water Bureau, 1890-92. 

Eng. Record, 1891, Vol. 23, page 246; 1892, Vol. 26, page 360. 
Self-registering Rain-gauges and Their Use for Recording Excessive Rainfalls. 

Eng. Record, 1891, Vol. 23, page 74. 
The Practical Value of Self-recording Rain-gauges. Weston. Eng. News, 1889, 

Vol. 21, p. 399- 



1 1 I 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE DISPOSAL OF THE RAINFALL. 

80. Manner of Disposal — The ultimate disposal of the 
rainfall depends on the rate of rainfall and the condition of 
the surface receiving it. If the receiving surface is highly 
pervious the water may pass into the strata as rapidly as it 
falls. A heavy rainfall occurring when the ground is frozen, 
or on an impervious stratum, will flow at once into the streams, 
with a velocity regulated by the surface gradient. A com- 
paratively small rainfall may produce, under these circum- 
stances, flood conditions. A similar rainfall during the sum- 
mer will be largely lost by evaporation, taken up by the grow- 
ing crops, or may rapidly sink into pervious ground, giving 
little or no run off. Subject to these variations, the annual 
rainfall is partially lost in evaporation, partially taken up 
by the strata, a limited portion is used by vegetable growth, 
and the balance forms the flood flow of streams. The impor- 
tance of each manner of disposal depends entirely on the con- 
trolling surface conditions. 

81. Percolation. — A portion of the rainfall on pervious 
strata sinks below the surface until it reaches a relatively im- 
pervious stratum. The water then follows the dip until it 
fills the stratum, thus causing it to become impervious to fur- 
ther percolation, or until it finds an outlet in springs and rivers, 
or flows to more distant and unknown outlets, sometimes be- 
low the surface of the sea. 

A portion of the underground water is absorbed by the 
roots of plants, and on this- water vegetation must depend for 
its supply during dry periods. Water drawn from the earth 
by plants, after performing its functions in vegetation, is trans- 
pired from the vegetable surfaces. 



fS0» 127* 125* 133' 12T llfc* flT 115* II3T 111* 109* tOT IDS* 103* 10T 




Map No. 15 

79' 11' r5» 13' 71' €9» er 65* 




85" «3° 61" 79 s 



114 The Disposal of the Rainfall 

The dry weather flow of streams also depends on per- 
colating water. Streams derived from areas where porous 
strata are largely developed are the more constant, and are 
less subject to fluctuations either from floods or drought. From 
this source is also derived all phreatic waters — -ground water, 
the underflow of streams, deep and artesian waters, and the 
waters of springs. 

82. Evaporation. — Whenever water is in contact with un- 
saturated atmosphere evaporation occurs. Evaporation takes 
place from damp earth surfaces and from the water surface of 
swamps, lakes, streams, and oceans. The percolation of water 
into the strata limits the amount actually evaporated from a 
given area by reducing the amount of water in contact with 
the atmosphere and thus confining the evaporation largely to 
exposed water surfaces. If such were not the case the evapora- 
tion, over much of the area of the United States, would greatly 
exceed the annual rainfall, and no water would be available 
for other uses. (See Map No. 15, showing the annual evapora- 
tion in the United States.) 

Evaporation depends upon the temperature of the water, 
and on the temperature and humidity of the atmosphere ad- 
jacent to it. It is greatly promoted by atmospheric currents, 
which remove the vapor already formed, and bring dry air into 
contact with the water surface. (Turneaure & Russell, Water 
Supply, Chapter V. Rafter, Relation of Rainfall to Run Off, 

p- 38.) 

83. Water Used by Growing Crops. — The quantity of 
water used by growing crops is very large, as already noted in 
Section 31. 

The water serves to convey the soluble foods of the soil 
to the various fibres of the plant, and is then transpired from 
the vegetable surfaces. The amount actually retained as a 
part of vegetable growth is very small. This is shown in Table 
28, which shows the amount of water required to produce a 
pound of dry matter, including, however, transpiration and 
evaporation from the cultivated surface.* 



* Eighth Annual Report Wisconsin Agric. Exp. Station, p. 126. 



Run Off 



115 



TABLE 28. 



The Amount 


of Water Required to Produce a Pound op Dry Matter 






in Wisconsin for Oats, Barley and Corn. 




u 

I 




Lbs. of water per lb. 
of dry matter. 




Computed amount of 
water. 












Mean. 


Lbs. 


In tons 
per acre. 


In 

inches. 


Barley . 
Barley . 


1 
2 


158.3 
141.03 


.3966 

.3488 


399.14 
404.33 


401.74 


7,441 


1,494.67, 


13.19 


Oats- .. . 
Oate . . 


1 
2 


224.25 
220.7 


.4405 
.4471 


509.31 
493.63 


501.47 


8,861 


2,221.76 


19.60 


Corn . . 
Corn . 


1 
2 


300.45 
298.65 


1.0152 

.9727 


295.95 
307.03 


301.49 


19.845 


2,991.53 


26.39 



The actual amount of water used in irrigation is not 
always a criterion of the amount actually needed for plant 
growth. The amount used varies greatly in different locali- 
ties, as would be expected from the great difference in local 
conditions. In most cases the quantity of water used is in 
excess of the amount actually needed for the crops. Table 
29 shows the result of actual measurements of water used for 
irrigation purposes.* 

84. Run Off. — The water which passes directly into the 
streams by surface flow is the principal cause of floods In 
addition to the surface flow, the streams ultimately receive the 
larger proportion of the ground waters, and from this source 
the ordinary dry weather flow of streams is maintained. 

The entire stream flow constitutes the run off. which 
varies greatly in different streams, and also in the same stream 
in different years. In a general way, however, the run off is 
approximately constant and its amount is shown in Map 
No. 16. 



*Bul. 86, U. S. Dept. Agric. Irrigation Investigation. 



n6 



The Disposal of the Rainfall 



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Literature 1 1 7 

LITERATURE. 

Turneaure and Russell, Public Water Supplies, Chapter V. 

C. C. Vermeule, Report on Water Supply. Geo. Survey of New Jersey, Vol. III. 

Percolation. 

The Loss of Water from Reservoirs by Seepage and Evaporation, Bulletin No. 

45, State Agric. College, Fort Collins, Colorado. 
Seepage or Return Waters from Irrigation, Bulletin No. 33, State Agric. 

College, Fort Collins, Colorado. 
Loss from Canals from Filtration or Seepage, Bulletin No. 48, State Agric. 

College, Fort Collins, Colorado. 
Emil Kuichling, Loss of Water from Various Canals by Seepage. (See Paper 

on Water Supply for New York State Canals, Report of State Engi- 
neer on Barge Canal, 1901.) 
On the Amount and Composition of the Rain and Drainage Waters Collected 

at Rothamsted, by J. B. Lawes. Jour, of the Royal Agric. Soc. of 

England, Vols. 17 and 18. 
H. M. Wilson, Manual of Irrigation Engineering. 
Samuel Fortier, Preliminary Report on Seepage Waters, etc. Bulletin No. 38, 

Agric. Exp. Station, Logan, Utah. 
H. M. Wilson, Irrigation in India. Water Supply and Irrigation, Papers No. 7. 

D. W. Mead, Report on Water Power of Rock River, Chicago, 1904. 

Evaporation. 

Depth of Evaporation in the United States, Engineering News, December 30th, 

1888, and January 5th, 1889. 
Evaporation. Desmond Fitzgerald. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Sept., 1886. 
Loss of Water from Reservoirs by Seepage and Evaporation, Bulletin No. 45, 

State Agric. College, Fort Collins, Colorado. 
On Evaporation and on Percolation. Greaves. Proc. Inst. C. E., 1875-76, XLV, 

p. 19. 
Depth of Evaporation in the United States. Monthly Weather Review, Sep- 
tember, 1888. 
On the Subterranean Water in the Chalk Formation of the Upper Thames and 

its Relation to the Supply of London. Harrison. Proc. Inst. C. E., 

1890-91, CV, p. 2. 
Relation of Evaporation to Forests. Fernow. Bulletin No. 7, Forestry Div., 

U. S. Dept. Agric. Engineering News, 1893, XXX, p. 239. 

Use of Water in Agriculture. 

Irrigation and Drainage. F. H. King. Macmillan & Co. The Amount of 
Water Used by Plants, pp. 16-46. Duty of Water, pp. 196-221. 

Manual of Irrigation. H. M. Wilson. J. Wiley & Sons. Quantity of Water 
Required, Chapter V. 

Irrigation Institutions. Elwood Mead. Macmillan & Co. The Duty of Water, 
Chapter VII. 

The Publications of the United States Experiment Stations on Irrigation and of 
the Experimental Stations of the various States contain much infor- 
mation on this subject. The following are of especial importance : 

Report of Irrigation Investigations, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Irrigation Inquiry: 
Bui. 86 for the year 1899, 
Bui. 104 for the year 1900, 
Bui. 119 for the year 1901. 

Duty of Water. L. G. Carpenter. Bui. 22, Agricultural Experimental Station, 
Fort Collins, Colorado, 1893. 

Report of State Engineer to Legislature of California. W. H. Hall. 2 Vols. 
Sacramento, 1880. 

Water for Irrigation. Samuel Fortier. Bui. 26, Utah Agricultural College, 
Logan, Utah, 1893. 



tw i2r res* 123' 121* tar nr its' tartar war lor 105* ioy lor 99- sr 




I05 1 103* I0r 99* »T* 



Map No. 16 



gp er 6B» 




98° a\° 



120 



CHAPTER IX. 

STREAM FLOW. 

85. Laws of Stream Flow. — While the flow of a stream 
is directly dependent on the rainfall, yet it is impossible, simply 
from the known rainfall on a watershed, to closely estimate 
stream flow and its constant and great variations. 

Stream flow depends not only on rainfall, but also on 
temperature, atmospheric pressure, and on the geology and 
topography of the watershed. The presence or absence of 
pervious strata, of swamps and forests, of the various classes 
of vegetation and agricultural improvements, each and all. 
modify the regime of a stream. Being so largely pre-deter- 
mined by climatic conditions, the flow will vary from month 
to month and from year to year as these conditions likewise 
vary. (Rafter, Relation of Rainfall to Run Off, W. S. & I. 
Paper No. 80, also Physiographic Processes, p. 6.) 

86. Daily Variation in Flow. — Diagrams 19 to 24 show 
graphically the actual daily variation in the flow of streams 
in various portions of the United States, and under widely 
different conditions.* The figures on the left indicate the 
scale of total discharge in cubic feet per second, while those 
on the right, which have been added to the original diagrams, 
indicate the scale of discharge in cubic feet per second per 
square mile, which is of more particular value for comparative 
study. 

Diagram 25 shows the daily flow of the Passaic River in 
cubic feet per second per square mile for a still longer period 
of years. t These diagrams illustrate the fact that the average 
monthly flow of a stream may be made up of considerable 
variation in daily flow; also that single determinations of flow 
afford absolutely no criterion on which to base an intelligent 
estimate of the regime of a stream. 

*20th An. Rep. U. S. G. S., Part II. 
fFinal Rep. New Jersey Geo. Survey, Vol. III. 



Daily Variation in Flow 
DIAGRAM 19. 



121 



Mi fcaf^ksaEaFaKatsiKdfc^i^iir^iEd Eata^^k^ti^imt^t^tMtiat^tmm 


S«C.-fU — 


-M 




• 




^ 






«i0°° hi 


~~m l0 




i - a 








__ _{_____, _-€ 




-U-U J.-.i . 


isW,- L-.I - -4- 


-\--.\ ii-ii ■ t-^t — ~ 4 



10, 1 
5, 



60,000 



r huh r imiiiiiiiiimiiMin r urn mi ? mil mi isr mini 
wiro 'i irtnwimiiiiriv i in M » "' immi m i in 

■f— ' -«(fl*r'« ^«|tf|rr -• -mm 

iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 



50,000 




-»2 



)0 



40,000 



*S/ 



t*>2 



-6 



-4 



T llll 1HIIM III 

llllllllllllllll Illllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 



45,000 




i 



<&N 



60,000 
55,000 
50,000 
45,000 
40,000 
35,000 
30,000 
25,000 



uirii muni 'HiHimr ww ' w v iniipiiiiii i win 

llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 



12 



10 



6 
*-4 

2 
o 



II 



20,000 
15,000 
10,000 

5,000 



60,000 



ill 



««e 



iiiiiiuf turnip muni " f miii < 



llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 




Discharge of Hndson River at Mechanic3T!!!e, K"e>r York, 1S89-1893. 



122 Stream Flow 

DIAGRAM 20 



r^i^b^fc^irV'fWjr^f^t^B^g^a^f^ 




IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIllllllHIIBIIIIIISIIIIIIIIIIIIIIilllllllllllllllllllllll 



220,000 

200,000 

180,000 

WO, 000 

140,000 

120.000 

100,000 

80,000 

40,000 

40,000 

20,000 





ll 






it 



1 



1 1 lllllllllllllllllllllll II 
1 ^iiihiiiiiiii 11 in r 



h 



him illinium 11 1 1 mil 

" mini 1 mir i >ii 



-Discharge of Susquehanna River at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, 1891-ISQ8. 

Diagram 25, on which the monthly rainfall has been given, 
also affords an interesting illustration of the relation of monthly 
rainfall and stream flow. 

Diagram 26, which shows the variation in mean monthly 
run off from the great lakes for each year from i860 to 1892, 
illustrates the influence of storage on maintaining uniformity 
of flow. While a considerable seasonable variation in flow 



Variation in Flow 



123 



DIAGRAM 2 



EgEamEaEaBamEaii ffl iaaEaibatafcakia 



5,000 



3,500 




-Discharge of North River at Poet Republic, Virginia. 1895-1898. 

is shown in the run-off, such variation is small compared with 
the volume of discharge, and does not exhibit the rapid fluctua- 
tion in flow, caused by rainstorms, as in the case of smaller 
streams. 

87. Extreme Variation. — In many hydraulic problems 
the extreme variations in stream flow, either maximum or 
minimum, are the most important factors. Various formula 
have been suggested for flood flows, none of which, however, 
should be used without a knowledge of the conditions under 
which they are applicable. The known ratio of actual maxi- 
mum and minimum flow on watersheds, where such flow has 
been determined, is of importance. Such data serves as the 
best guide for all such calculations, where the area considered 
is subject to similar conditions. The maximum and minimum 
flow of various American and foreign streams is contained in 
Table 30, which gives the drainage area, mean annual rain- 
fall, and maximum and minimum discharge in cubic feet per 
second per square mile of various streams in the United States 
and foreign countries.* 

*Report of State Engineer of New York on Barge Canal, 1901. 



124 



Stream Flow 



DIAGRAM 22. 



S«c..ft. ]* 


r tit i»«»t- ■iwnr -hw- 




•ui inr -spr -ror -Btr 






t T 


-Ha- 






■ 


f -| 


lf 


-j -_ jj_ s_ 




I 


ASSS 


j /<99* 


r 




r 


~T j 


II ,, 


r 




I - 


i 


:"::::ji:::::::::i:: 


T r 


7 000 -- 


1 , 


• l4 


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]j f 




I TT 


II 


___: it 


J L 




[ T 


-1 i 


Iti 






1 i j » 


. T M 


.lit 


. __ i_._ r 




Hi , j 


lii II 


1 lii Hi i 


ji it 



2,0( 
1,000 

1. 2000 
11,000 
10, 000 
9,000 
8,000 
000 
000 

ooo 
oocr 
ooa 
ooo 
ooo 



000 
000 
000 



ii ni ! «mi niMiir w ■ n i miiiihii r * i ii i nt \r 



i ii 191 1 1 iii in iin (Minimum ti iir minimi iiiiiniiii in in 

HI ' «i * < «r '*[ IIIIIIIIIII Mil 111111111! HUH ill 

imiir' 'wnniii ,r " 

iiii ii i iiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiPiiiiiiiiiiii i ii ii 



9,000 

8,000 

000 

000 
000 
000 
000 
000 
000 




I 



iiiiuimriiimiiiiimiifiainriii mimr i iimh i i 
" 'ii * if i 'it iiffiiiiiiirfrwiiii'ii! v iwinr i i <*i * 



Discharge Of Ocmulgee River at Macon, Georgia, 1893-1898. 



Diagram 27 also shows the rate of maximum flood dis- 
charge of certain American and European rivers.* 

(See Turneaure & Russell, Water Supply, Chapter VI.) 

88. Monthly Average Flow. — For the purpose of certain 
calculations, the average monthly stream flow is the most con- 
venient basis. 

The average monthly discharge, in cubic feet per second 
per square mile of drainage area, of a few eastern rivers of 
the United States, is given in Table 31. From this table it 
will be seen that the minimum average monthly flow of a 
stream does not always occur during the same month, and 



•Report of State Engineer of New York on Barge Canal, 1901 



Variation in Flow 
DIAGRAM 23 



125 



F^iira^cnEai a ^ia^Bg^KanEaEai^iaiziLTjrj^ 



10,000 



8,000 
7,000 
6,000 
5,000 
4,000 
3,000 
2,000 

1,000 






^■Uiw "W" 



m 



I.S 
.1. 



UIIIIIIIMiiMII 



Discharge of Bear River at Collinston, Utah, 1889-1S98. 



126 



Stream Flow 
DIAGRAM 24. 



Sec.-ft. 
5.500 
5.000 
4.500 
4,000 
3,500 
3,000 
2.500 

2, COO 
1,500 
1, 000 

500 



5,500 

5,000 

4, 500 
4,000 
3,500 
3,000 
2,500 
2,000 
1,500 
1,000 

500 


5, 500 
5,000 
4,500 
4,000 
3, 500 
3,000 
2,500 
2,000 
1,500 
1,000 

500 

5,500 
5,000 
4,500 
4,000 
3,500 

3, COO 
2,500 
2,000 
1,500 
1,000 

500 

5,500 
5,000 
4,500 
4,000 
3.500 
8,000 
1500 
2, C00 
1,500 
1.000 

500 




r;3 M^ E« fc^ IriJ b3 1^ btf fa3 brt fca Ii3 1^ 




IIIIIM 




MllimilMHMPIHWr)" 



-.75 



-SO 



-.25 



"IIIIHIMIII 



minimi in iiiiiiiiiiiiumiiiiiiiiiniiii tmiimmimiiiimi 





*lPIHIPP ,r 

minimi 
iniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiifiiiiiiiiiiiiii 



o 

k75 



SO 



-25 



O 
73 




'iMiHi'iimiiiiv' 



'Mil <lll*ll ■ *-*« 



iimmiiiii (iiiiiiiiiiiinmiiiiiiiiiiiimmiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 



o 
.75 




IHIIIIM 



iiimii hihuiipp 



minimum 



-Discharge of the Rio Grande at Embudo. New Mexico. 1880-1898. 






Variation in Flow 
DIAGRAM 25. 



27 



DAILY FLOW OF PASSAIC RIVER LITTLE FALLS. N-J 




DISCHARGE CURVES Of STMAPYS ST( 



IN CUBIC FEET PER SEC 

P«OK1 RtPOBT OP » 





DIAGRAM 26 



} NIAGARA & ST LAWRENCE RIVERS. 



TROM I860 TO 1902 




^Ip^^^ZT^lE?:^ 



^ ST. MARYS 

♦Sooo To 1*0.000 Cf PCM 3 




ST LAWRENCE, 
iftS.ooo to jjqooo e r rc«s 



NIAGARA 

i75,ooo TO Mo.tMCrrini 



ST. MA«YS . 

•*5,ooO TO ICO, OOO C r KKJ 



130 Stream Flow 



TABLE 30. 

DRAINAGE AREA, 500 TO 1,000 SQUARE MILES 

Drainage Mean Annual Discharge Ca. Ft. 

STREAM AND LOCALITY. Area, Rainfall, pcfSec. 

Sq. Miles Inches Der Sq. Mile 

I. American Streams. Max. Mm. 

Broad river at Carlton, Ga 762 47.73 22.21 .394 

Coosa wattee river at Carters, Ga 532 52 . 73 15 . 17 .588 

Des Plaines river at Riverside, 111 630 29.75 14.23 .000 

Etowah river at Canton, Ga 604 52.73 31.50 .405 

Flint river at Molina, Ga. 892 52.73 7.37 .062 

French Broad river at Asheville, N. C 987 7 . S8 .660 

Greenbriar river, mouth Howard's cr., W. Va. 810 40.70 .120 

Housatonic river, Massachusetts. < 790 . 165 

Little Tennessee river at Judson, N. C 675 56.40 .408 

Mahoning river at Warren, 596 .017 

Mahoning river 967 .026 

Monocacy river at Frederick, Md 665 38.77 16.98 .116 

North river at Port Republic, Va 804 38.77 29.78 .220 

North river at Glasgow, Va 831 38.77 44.80 .180 

Oleutangy river at Columbus, 523 .OH 

Passaic river at Paterson, N. T 791 45.00 .190 

Potomacriver.no. branch at Cumberland, Md. 891 38.77 22.82 .045 

Potomac river at Cumberland, Md 920 38.77 19.46 .022 

Raritan river at Bound Brook, N. T 879 45.94 59.30 .140 

Schoharie creek at Fort Hunter, N' Y 948 39.25 44.00 

Shenandoah river at Fort Republic, Va 770 38.77 .167 

Tuckasagee river at Bryson, N. C 662 45.30 .603 

II. French Streams. 

Armanccn river at Aisy 575 49.20 .011 

.A.rmancon river at Tonnerre 853 .034 

Marne river at St. Pizier 915 30.70 7.73 .101 

Meuse river at Pagny-la-Blanchecote 573 .039 

Meuse river at Chalaines 607 SI .51 .041 

Meuse river at Pagny-sur-Meuse 734 .056 

Meuse river at Vignot 817 .085 

Meuse river at Mt. Mihiel 914 .078 

III. German Streams. 

Ihna river at Stargard 672 26.60 1-5.50 .137 

Jagst river at its mouth 708 29.50 .200 

Kocher river at its mouth 768 29.50 .221 

Lippe river at Hamm 965 9.75 .235 

Malapane river at Czarnowanz 773 25.04 14 35 .274 

Oppa river at Strebowitz 805 24.40 21.95 .256 

Stober river at its mouth 620 22.70 3.65 



Extreme Variation 



131 



TABLE 30— Continued 

DRAINAGE AREA, 1,000 TO 2,500 SQUARE MILES. 

Drainage 

STREAM AND LOCALITY. Area, 

Sq. Mile. 

I. American Streams. 
Androscoggin river at Rumford Falls, Me. . . 2,220 

Broad river at Gaffney, S. C 1,435 

Catawba river at Catawba, N . C 1 , 535 

Chattahoochee river at Oakdale, Ga 1,560 

Genesee river at Mt. Morris, N. Y 1,070 

Greenbriar river at Aederson, W.-Va 1,344 

James river at Buchanan, Va 2,058 

Neuse river at Raleigh, N C 1,000 

Neuse river at Selma, N. C 1,175 

Ocmulgee river at Macon, Ga 2,425 

Oconee river at Carey, Ga 1,346 

Oostannala river at Resaca, Ga 1,527 

Potomac river at Cumberland, Md 1,364 

Saluda river at Waterloo, S. C 1,056 

Schuylkill river at Philadelphia, Pa 1 , 800 

Schuylkill river at Fairmount, Pa 1,915 

Scioto river at Columbus, 1,070 

Scioto river at Shadeville, O 1,670 

Tar river at Tarboro, N. C. . 2,290 

Youghiogheny river at Okio Pyle, Pa 1,775 

II. French Streams. 

Aisne river at Biermes 1,341 

Aisne river at Berry-au-Bac. • 2,120 

Aisne river at Berry-au-Bac 2,120 

Loing river at its junction with the Seine. . . 1,785 

Lys river 1,420 

Marne river at La Chaussee 2, 297 

Marne river at Chalons 2,497 

Meuse river at Verdun 1,219 

Oise river at Chauny 1,575 

Seine river at Troyes -. . % ; . 1,314 

III. German Streams. 

Bober river at Sagan 1 , 638 

Drage river at its mouth 1,234 

111 river at Strasburg 1,294 

Kuddow river at Usch 1,830 

Lahn river at Diez 2,008 

Lippe river at Wesel 1,890 

Main river above mouth of the Regnitz river 1,725 

Netze river at Antonsdorf 1,086 

Netze river above Eichhorst. 1,130 

Oderjriver at Hoschialkowitz 1,440 

Oder river at Annaberg 1,800 

Oder river at Olsau 2,250 

Obra river at Moschin 1,325 

Ruhu river at Mulheim 1 ,728 

Saale river at its junction with the Main.. . . 1,070 

Welna river at Kowanowko, near mouth. . . 1,013 



Mean Annual 


Discharge C 


u. Fr. 


Rainfall, 


per Sec 




Inches. 


per Sq. Mile. 




Mak. 


MrN. 


40.39 


25.00 


.475 


47.73 


13.05 


.550 




34.30 


.553 


48.91 


21.75 


.432 


38.09 


39.20 


.094 


44.86 


41.55 


.041 


40.83 


15 56 


.146 
.193 




C.70 


.064 


49.23 


14.92 


.157 


49.31 


7.44 


.283 


52.47 


14.50 


.389 


35.28 




.018 




12.08 


.275 
.170 




12.17 


.013 
.004 
.015 




6.38 


.074 
.060 

.085 
.092 




7.58 




28.40 




.046 




1.74 


.099 
.010 
.010 


28733 




.110 
.104 
.051 


39.20 


17.40 


.389 




2.11 


.356 




9.15 


.327 


18.90 


19.30 


.405 


25.60 


12 80 


.123 




11.62 


.19S 


27.44 




.224 
.063 
.046 


21.60 




.155 


24.60 


27.00 


.219 


24.60 


43.90 


.274 
.101 




33.80 


.176 


27.76 




.081 




3.14 


.077 



132 Stream Flow 



TABLE 30-Continued 

DRAINAGE AREA, 2,500 TO 5,000 SQUARE MILES. 

Drainage Mean Annual Discharge Cu, Ft. 

STREAM AND LOCALITY. Area, Rainfall, perSec. 

Sq. Miles. Inches. per Sq. Mile- 

I. American Streams. Max. Mi»». 

Black Warrior river at Tuscaloosa, Ala 4,900 38.80 ,018 

Broad river at Alston, S. C r 4,609 10.26 .394 

Cape Fear river at Fayetteville, W. Va 4,493 1.17 .076 

Catawba river at Rock Hill, S. C 2,987 21.96 .445 

Chattahoochee river at West Point, Ga 3,300 52.92 17.87 ,252 

Connecticut river at Dartmouth, N. H 3,287 .306 

Coosa river at Rome, Ga 4,001 52.73 11.42 .225 

Crow Wing river, Minnesota . 3,576 30.84 2.84 .250 

Dan river at Clarksville, Va 3,749 38.28 8.80 .107 

Hudson river at Mechanicsville, N.Y. 4,500 41.61 15.50 .189 

Kennebec river at Waterville, Me 4,410 25.20 .006 

Merrimac river at Lowell, Mass 4,085 19.83 .310 

*Merrimac river at Lawrence, Mass 4,551 2Q.0O .27 

Mohawk river at Rexford Flats, N. Y. . . . . . 3,384 23.10 

Mohawk river at Cohoes, N.Y. 3, 444 38 . 65 .232 

Ocanee river at Dublin, Ga. „ 4,182 49.31 6.69 .021 

Potomac river at Dam No. 5, Md 4, 640 38 . 77 22 . 15 .078 

Savannah river at Calhoun Falls. Ga 2,712 47.73 .90 .518 

Shenandoah river at Millville, W. Va 2,995 39.56 11 .44 .203 

Staunton river at Clarksville, Va. .'. 3,546 38.28 10.30 . 157 

Susquehanna river, w. br. , Williamsport, Pa. 4,500 11.60 ,178 

Tallapoosa river at Milstead, Ala 3,840 9.50 .091 

Yadkin river at Salisbury, N. C 3,399 23.55 .225 

Yadkin river at Norwood, N. C 4,614 13.70 .284 

II. French Streams. 

Aisne river at Soissons 3,040 6.43 .081 

Aisne river, above junction with the Oiserivei 3,285 23.50 5.93 .096 

Eure river at its mouth 2,980 22.30 2.72 .076 

Isere river at its mouth 4,300 21.00 .780 

Marne river at Chateau Thierry 3,333 .127 

Meuse river at Sedan 2,560 28.33 8.05 ,194 

Meuse river at Fumay 3,700 28.33 4.04 .191 

Seine river at Bray 3,750 4.05 .003 

Seine river at Nogent-sur-Seine 3,594 .103 

Yonne river at Sens 4,270 9.09 .106 

Yonne river at Nogent-sur-Seine •. 4,300 30.80 6.37 . 140 

III. German Streams. 

Main river, below mouth of the Regnitz river 4,650 27.44 . 186 

Moselle river at Metz 3,550 29.48 14.92 .199 

Mur river at Graz 2,959 12.98 .243 

Neckar river at Heilbronn 3, 155 . 146 

Neckar river at Offenau 4,770 33.35 . 167 

Oder river at Ratibor 2,580 24.60 21.20 .306 

Oder river at Kosel 3,520 24.60 14.10 .128 

Oder river at Krappitz 4,150 24.60 3.80 .187 

Regnitz river at its jufac. with the Main river 2,920 25.60 .164 

♦Figurrs supplied by Mr. Rich. A. Hale, Lawrence. Mass. 



Extreme Variation 133 



TABLE 30— Continued 

DRAINAGE AREA, 5,000 AND OVER SQUARE MILES. 

Drainage Mean Annual Discnarge Cu. Ft. 

STREAM AND LOCALITY. Area, Rainfall. per Sec. 

Sq. Miles. Inches. per Sq. Mile. 

I American Streams. Max. Min. 

Connecticut river at Holyoke, Mass 8,660 13.26 .029 

Connecticut river at Hartford, Conn 10, 234 44 . 53 . 310 

Connecticut river at Hartford, Conn 10,234 44.53 20.27 .510 

Coosa river at Riverside, Ala 6, 850 48 . 08 10 . 53 .197 

Delaware river, New Jersey 6, 750 50 . 00 .300 

Delaware river at Stockton, N. J 6,790 45.29 37.50 .170 

Delaware river at Lambertsville, N. J 6,855 45.29 9.71 .364 

James river at Richmond, Va 6,800 40.83 .191 

Kanawha river at Charleston, W. Va 8,900 40.70 13.49 .123 

Mississippi river 7,283 32.64 1.49 .261 

Mississippi river above St. Paul 36, 085 25 . 75 19 . 73 .045 

Mississippi river. ...» 164,534 . 190 

Mississippi river 526,500 .050 

Mississippi river 1,214,000 .210 

Missouri river 17,615 15.70 .100 

New river at Fayette. W. Va 6,200 40.70 13.49 .189 

Ohio river at Pittsburg, Pa 19,990 .114 

Ohio river 200,000 41.50 .270 

Oswego river at Oswego, N. Y 5,013 37 .69 '230 

Potomac river at Point of Rocks, Md 9,654 39.35 19.40 .083 

Potomac river 11,043 38.77 42.60 .170 

Potomac river at Georgetown, D. C 11,124 38.77 15.70 

Potomac river at Great Falls, Md 11 ,427 45. 36 41.15 .215 

Potomac river at Great Falls, Md 1 1 , 476 45 . 36 1 5 . 25 .093 

Potomac river at Chain Bridge, D. C 11,545 38.77 17.16 .165 

Red river, Arkansas 97,000 39.00 2.32 

Roanoke river at Neal, N. C 8.717 38.21 7.38 .229 

St. Croix river, Minnesota 5,950 32.58 6.00 .424 

Savannah river at Augusta, Ga 7,294 47.73 42.50 . 272 

Susquehanna, W. branch, at Northumberland 6,800 17.53 .074 

Susquehanna river at Harrisburg, Pa .24,030 18.88 .092 

Tennessee river at Chattanooga, Tenn 21,418 20.78 . 199 

II. French Streams. 

Loire river at Nevers 6,560 23.10 .070 

Loire river, between Maine and Vienne rivers 9,950 .255 

Marne river at Charen ton 5,657 .016 

Marne river at its junction with the Seine .. . 5,295 30.70 4.67 | .080 

Meuse river at Maestricht 8,240 42.50 5.51 ,.146 

Meuse river at Maeseyck 8,480 42.50 7.36 .244 

Meuse river above Ruremond 8,750 3.01 .317 

Oise river at Creil 5,622 3.14 , .194 

Rhone river at Lyons 18,000 36.32 11.83 .333 

Seine river at Port a 1' Anglais 1 7, 624 .046 

Seine river at Paris. 20,000 21.27 5.80 .085 

Seine river at Mantes 25,135 3.09 .091 

Seine river at mouth of the Eure river. .... . 28,583 3.09 

III. German Streams. 

Elbe river at Torgau 22,000 27.09 2.89 .144 

Main river above mouth of Saale river. .... 5,820 . 182 

Main river below mouth of Saale river 6,900 . 166 

Main river above mouth of Tauber river 7,290 . 167 

Main river below mouth of Tauber river 8,000 . 167 

Main river at Frankfort 9,610 12.50 .121 

Memel river at Tilsit 38,600 4.02 .813 

Moselle river at Kochem 10,253 8.52 .174 

Moselle river at Coblenz 10,840 24.76 13.01 . 166 



DIAGRAM SHOWING THE R. 



ii 

u 

j 

z 

<* 

a 

id 

a 

H 
L 


Id 
0) 

» 

Id 
O 

a 

< 

r 
o 



L 
O 

U 

D 
Z 

X 

< 




CERTAIN AMERIC/ 

under condi 
* those: in t* 

CURVE No.l (q= J~ 

WHICH 

CURVE No.E(q^lf2 

WHICH 

•-DENOTES OBSERVA 

©- DENOTES OBSER\ 

X-DENOTE5 OB5EI 

A-DEHOTE5 OS3 



Hcwyc 



£50 500 750 I00O )ZSO 1 500 I750 200O 

AREA OP DRAIN/* 



DIAGRAM 27. 

1 Or MAXIMUM FLOOD DISCHARGE. 

or 
AND EUROPEAN RIVER5, 
|>NS comparable: TO 

MOHAWK VALLEIY- 
+ fco) CORRESPONDS TO FLOODS 

Ky occur occasionally 
+ 74) corresponds to floods 

l\V OCCUR RARELY. 



>NS ON AMERICAN R1VER8. 
riONS ON ENGLISH R1VER6- 
ATTIONS ON rRENCHfBEUGIAN RIV. 
VATION5 ON GERMAN «AUaTRI AN ^»V> 



«>M REPORT 

OF 

KuiCHLINQ.CE. 

State. CanalSurv&Y- 





















^^ 




























■••^ 


^^ ^ 




























P"""" 


aw* 


■ «an 


(k 


A 


• 




«• 






• 


• 


• • 




• 
• 




* \ 




*• 

• 
i 


«* • 


^ 1 


!_ 




•o 

• 
* • 




• • 





A 


• 


• 


A 


e * 


A* 


* 

« 




• 






1" "" 



















>0 250O 2750 S000 3ZSO 350O S7ffo 4O0O AtSD 4500 +7F0 80OO 

E BASIN- SQ. MILES -(M.) 



1 36 



Stream Flow 



for the consideration of these streams, for practical purposes, 
the better arrangement of the recorded flows is not by monthly- 
periods, but in the relative order of the flows. 

In Table 32, this data has been rearranged so that the 
least flow for any month in the given year is shown on the 
first line, and the flows of other months are arranged below 



TABLE 31. 



AVERAGE DISCHARGE. IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND PER SQUARE. MILE OF DRAIN- 
AGE! AREA OF VARIOUS .RIVERS OF THE UNITED 5TATE5j FROrvl I8S6 TO I90I- 


HUDSON RIVER AT ME.CHANICSVIULE. NY. 
DRAINAGE. AREA 4-300 SQ. MILES 


SHENANDOAH R. 

MILLVILLE. W.VA. 

2995 SQM. 


POTOMAC R. 

POINT OF ROCN.MO. 
9e54>-30.M. 


DELAWARE R. 
LAMBERTVILLE, 
N.JL 6S55 3Q.M. 


YEAR 


&3 


'as '90 


'91 


'92 


'93 


'94 


'95 's 


5 '97 


'ae 


>^9 ' 


30 


Ol 


AV 


'97 


'98 


99 


AV 


90 


99 


AV. 


99 


JANUARY 


MM 


Z44 


zso 


.84 


419 


.71 


130 


.16 1.5 


, a 


5 17 


149 


30 


6 9 


1.65 


40 


5C 


1.66 


86 


2.44 


197 


2.22 


3.13 


FEBRUARY 


82 


.84 


1.7* 


2.59 


2.06 


102 


1.07 


.79 10 


4 J5 


7 15 


1.17 


.7 7 


.54 


I.Si 


,J3J7 


.33 1.23 


1 64 


■92 


3.0 1 


197 


3.67 


MARCH 


1.32 


L84 


2.47 


3.9* 


2.41 


197 


128 


.93 3.4 


2 27 


44 


214 


.72 


l.SO 


24 


? 1 53 


5 


229 


1.44 


1.65 


3.73 


2.69 


5.73 


APRIL 


473 


3.04 


335 


1,45 


479 


i9£ 


247 


529 s.: 


542 


J 30. 


"S.2S 


502 


6.26 


4.3 


9 .79 


1.0! 


110 


sa 


1 73 


1 25 


1.49 


3".0S 


MAY 


476 


197 


398 


23 


437 


4-9; 


168 


152 « 


2 27 


24 


S217 


00 


2.60 


Z{, 


7 1 S6 


1 4H 


65 


I.3S 


1.96 


1.19 


150 


119 


JUNE 


1.09 


152 


1.64 


.71 


2230 


1.0 7 


1.5 S 


.63 1.0 


5 2.6 


> I.I 


.58 


.91 


173 


13 


r .46 


.3. 


.55 


!*5 


AS 


57 


.5 1 


.3-7 


JULY 


34 


128 


.43 


.32 


Z-06 


se 


.70 


37 .« 


2 24 


7 3 


.54 


.52 


-19 


e< 


i ■'* 2 


.2£ 


.31 


.34 


26 


.27 


27 


399 


AUGUST 


38 


.9: 


.45 


36 


1.22 


lm 


35 


.67 J 


4 18, 


3 1.14 


31 


60 


1.03 


.8 


5 2 = 


2.7J 


36 


1. ,3 


241 


.25 


1.33 


77 


SEPTEMBER 


.« 


.4-< 


,.97 


.45 


99 


1.33 


.42 


.SB .« 


4 .6 


.8 


.46 


.42 


£9 


7 


3 .22 


.4C 


.34 


32 


27 


.25 


.26 


1.33 


OCTOBER 


1.02 


.6. 


2.03 


.33 


£.3 


at 


.81 


.58 5 


, .5 


, 1.7. 


.58 


47 


34 


.8 


E .23 


166 


.27 


72 


1.4a 


.10 


©4- 


93 


NOVEMBER 


Z3t 


L77 


203 


.91 


1.69 


6 


142 


107 2.S 


2 22 


2.0. 


1.42 


" 


S3 


l.fe- 


* 26 


.65 


5-1 


54 


.95 


-34 


es 


1.50 


DECEMBER 


222 


2.92 


.72 


1.91 


.93 


I-6C 


.97 


2.42 1.3 


4 32 


B 1-241 


102 


13 


SB 


I.G 


3J A7 


1.343 


47 


77 


1.66 




LOS 


186 


AVERAGE 


177 


l.« 


L94 


1.62 


234 


ice 


1.37 


141 16 


6 2.0 


,8. 


143 


50 


167 




86 


9<= 


83 




1.35 


1 .12 




2 23 


CENLSEL RIVER N.Y. 
1070 3Q.M. OR.A. 
RUN orf IN SEC-FEET PER iQM 


OSWE.GO 
SOOO 8«. 


R 
V1ILE3 


BLACK R 
N.Y 
1689 3QMILE3 


LAKECHAMPLAIl| MOHAWK R | HUD50NR. 
| LITTLE FALL* | FT EDWARD3 
7750 3Q.M | I306SOM. | 2800SQ.M. 


YEAR 


93 


94 


35 


's 


; av. 


97 


9«|s9 


60 c 


1 AV. 


97 


'98 


93 


OO 


0, 


AV |J9S 


OO 


fa 


AV. 


98 


99 


00 


01 


AV. 


1" 


00 


01 


AV. 


JANUARY 




MM 


66 




7 - o *S 


saUj 


.61 I 


07 as 




1.18 


24= 


150 


• So 


1 6 7 III .37 


41 


IJJ 


3 , 44 




2 11 


•» 


33 


2.5 


l» 


LIS 


US 


I 02 


FEBRUARY 




.85 


JZ 


9 


.66 




124) 49 


.93 


37 .76 


1.14 


20 


123 


3-« 


^ 


1 74 125 


,87 


1.2 


3 1 47 




M5 


(94 


84 




m 


2 55 


S3 


1 24 


MARCH 




331 


94 


AC 


» 2.75 




L9s| .97 


.99 1 


45 1.33 


334 


5.« 


an 


1.5 7 


3 16 


3. 17 143 


20« 




3 1 67 




288 


,85 


Si 




--" 




,.23 


1 47 


APRIL 




U! 


.01 


33 


B 293 


20! 


IS 1 153 


280,3 


35 2.25 


5oz 


2* 


73. 


7.37 


7M 


5. 94 1 2.60 


284 


3S 


5 J. 20 




4 20 


4.23 


S.4 


5.3, 


4 = 


4 0, 


7 55 


6 53 


MAY 




t4J 


J9 


.i 


7 1.60 


US 


16 jj 1.35 


,.33 2 


M I.S5 


2« 


16, 


29 


302 


265 


2.5*1)317 


232 


3< 


* 3.05 




2.03 


,58 


22<1 


1 9 


134 




3 03 


239 


JUNE. 




10 


J3 




, ,4 


.76 


L6«j 40 


& 1 


£3 I.OI 


144 


8 


8 


8£ 


2.81 


1 36 


179 


2+2 


21 


230 




■7«l 


.4' 


252 


, .3 


1 5( 


10 


2.23 




JULY 




.14 


.11 


^ 


4 16 


+a 


.34j| .15 


.19 


73 .38 


.47 


.6 


.44 


70 


04 


.65 


,25 


,54 


1-3 


2 1 37 




.61 


.72 


84 


.7 


4 


.45 


7d 


5S 


AUGUST 




« 


l* 


. 


< .IS 


47 


.I8J 12 


.13 


38 .26 


1 2 


7< 


4 


.SO 


U3 


.84 


_$<) 


!20 


1.7 


1 Z6 




.17 


53 


89 


.5 


i 2 " 


S3 


.90 


38 


SEPTEMBER 


Ji 


.93 


■10 




( 38 


.25 


2?j 12 


.13 


37 23 




.■* 


.52 


54 


,43 


.37 


47 


92 


9 


I 86 


,84 


23 


* 


90 




» *e 


AC 


.63 


3» 


OCTOBER 


J« 


44 


.11 


I 


14 .67 


21 


4d .ii 


17 


43 26 | 5« 


1.6 


.3' 


64 


2ll 


1.12 


S3 


as 


8 


2 73 


,9, 


39 


ii 


3 


1 3 


9 


,41 


*, 


.59 


NOVEMBER 


.54 


.a; 


47 


t 


B .64 


36 


ad 22 


4a 


se si |2i 


2fl 


.3 


2 45 


14! 


1 85 


US 


104 


7 


£ .99 


221 


1 36 


29i 


13 


1 94 


, 8 


1 ,3 


31 


1 .24 


DECEMBER 


25* 


£l 


32 




1.4* 


83 


-723) JZ 


1*0 


34 1.02||2K 


1.4- 


13 


2 24 




2 Ol Ii 147 


1.72 


1.3 


5 1.51 


1.54 


zsi 


246 


3 52 


2 4 


^3J 




1 Of 


1 36 


AVERAGE 




.47 


E2 


10 


* 




.99j .33 


37 


13 |10 


17 


i«r 


206 




'■■" 


,47 




a 




no 


;.-: 


» 




! '-'- 


1 55 




' 


KENNEBEC RIVER WATE.RVILLE. ME 
4410 3 Q MILES 


ANDROSCOGGIN R 
RUIV1FORO FALLS,!!!! 
2220 5Q M 


MERRIN1AC RIVER 
LAWRENCE, MASS 
4553 3Q. M 


CONNECTICUT R 
M0LY0KE.MA33. 
66GOS0M. 


YEAR 


93 


'9 + 


S3 


96 


97 


98 


■99 


AV. 


96 


97 


9S 


9£ 


> AV 


'so 


91 


92 


e 


3 194 


9J 


«* 


97 


38 


93 


AV. 


96 


©7 


99 


AV. 


JANUARY 


CC 


3 


■« 


.86 


01 


73 


.53 


64 


149 


82 


OS 


9E 


1.04 


155 


2.92 


107 


1 


5 66 


.4 3 




75 


.'4 


1.73 


1 38 


12k 


36 


1.19 


1 .01 


FEBRUARY 


53 


M 


41 


fcj 


84 


77 


54 


60 


78 


.74 


.77 


a 


78 


1.70 


294 


.94 >.0| .94 


5' 


200 


,0. 


1.7 


,07 


1 .40 


,05 


*7 


1.0a 


.91 


MARCH 


9 


3 


43 


295 


86 


2 56 


73 


1 S3 


Z4S 


.0, 


.32. 


6 


) 1 60 


544- 


5,9 


,61 236 J 16 


1 28 


+»2 


131 




24 


3 07 


3,4 


16- 


M 


29 7 


APRIL 


244J33 


5 4> 


61 


5 75 


£.74 


531 


5.06 


361 


3.56 


H9 


31 


) 4.29 


J.7S 


4 73 


l7S*3.42J2.4j|435 


400 


3 97 


S3 


sa 


3. 75 


4-8? 


4:0 


333 


412 


MAY 


6« 


1 1 


2,7 


307 


fclO 


5 70 


401 


♦ 59 


539 


323, 


1,21 


44- 


5 4 31 


3 14 


1.61 


226| 424^ I.J4] 1.37 


96 


2.:2 


24 


.0- 


2.19 


1 ,2 


24C 


2 ,9 


1 97 


JUNE 


34 


1 7 


1 46. 


I23J2 94 


Z!i 


2 00 


2.IC 


140 


3 ,5 


I 14 


14 


2.03 


1 73 


100 


1.28 .9^I33| .67 


.77 


2 79 


14 


u 


1 24 


42 


2 58, 


LSI 


130 


JULY 


' 3 


13 


80 


L2IJ296 


39 




137 


sx 


2»£ 


W 


r 


» 1.38 


k.9 


C-4 


I05J 52J 5o| 57 


« 


237 


54 


SA 


79 


4-2 


27, 


45 


I.IS 


AUGUST 


3 


4 


61 


7l|l65 


71 


73 


.80 


rj 


Oi 


.73 


B 


1 SI 


.75 


J4 


106 57J 57 #43 


44 


1 12 


a 


44 


60 


.'4. 


1 IS 1 


57 


.72. 


3EF-TEMK 


ii 


4 


40 


7*104 


39 


45 


62 


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72J 


« 


6 


3 SO 


10* 56. 


.67 61 *0 .37 


67 


61 


M 




•7* 


55 


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..-> 


56 


OCTOBER 


3 


A 


1C 


03 .6 


9 = 


Zf 


.6" 


?3 


72, 


27 


7 


3 .91 


270 


47 


47, 73 S^ »= 


1 14, 


48 


1 « 


33 


435 


1 |] 


42 


MM 


1 03 


NOVEMBER 


1 


e 


1 1 ; 


.J,» 


1 77 


46 


1 17 


L«J 


03 


27 1 


7 


1 n 


|0J 


J4 


.4s| J 76J2..0 


,4* 


1 i£ 


2, 


1 


1 20 


: ,> 


, 72 


i?i 


1 72 


DCCEMBEd 


V 




V 37 


Ju. 


39 


51 


73 


;>o 


17 


33 


7 


3 94 


1 +4 


^0 


,8C|).I7| .C7J204 


M 


2 23, 


, 9 


v. 


1 31 


M 


IS, 


n 


1 50 


*ve.rx/tqi 


n. 


1 i 


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i, 


197 


>■"■' 




1 7* 


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1.3 




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.84 


•JJm)»i 


,38 


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13. 


1 4. 


I 443 


»J 


1 f 


» 


1.60 



Monthly Average Flow 



137 



progressively from minimum to maximum. The average 
monthly flow thus arranged for each watershed will give a 
much better criterion of the stream flow to be expected on 
each watershed during the year than the average monthly flow 
as shown in Table 31. 

From Table 32 it will be seen that the average minimum 
monthly flow of the Hudson River at Mechanicsville, N. Y., 

TABLE 32 



AVERAGE DISCMARGE IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND PER SQUARE MILE OF DRAINAGE 
AREA. MONTHLY DISCHARGE. OF EACH RIVER ARRANGED IN ORDER OF MINIMUM FLOW. 


HUDSON RIVER AT M ECrtANICSYILLE, N.Y- 
DRAINAGE AREA 4500 SQ. MILE5 


SHENANDOAH R. 
2995 SQM 


POTOMAC R- 

POINT OF ROCK, MO 

9654-30, M. 


DELAWARE R. 
LAMBERTVILLE, 
N.J.6855 5QM 


YEAR Ifea 


'83 


'90 


'91 


'92 


'33 


'94 


'95 


96 


'37 '9£ 


'9S 


'00 


Ol 


AV. 


'97 


'98 i'99 


AV. 


'95 


'99 


AV 


'9 9 


MINIMUM 


.34 




43 


3> 


63 


56 


42 


5 7 


5 


\ 56| -S 


7 3 


, 4-2 


54 


41 


1 22 


.28| .27 


.26 


26 


,8 


22 


5 7 




.38 


.K 


45 


45 


93 


7, 


55 


58 


a 


2 .6,1 .6 


I 4 


6 47 




6 


1 23 


JM\ .31 


39 


27 


25 




36 


7? 




63 


8- 


72 




.99 


81 


70 


.58 




. J,, 


1 J 


4j 52 


.79 


7 


f-l .26 


33 .34 


.31 


.45 


.25 




35 


93 




82! 


.9- 


r.w 


.59 


1 22 


.66 


.81 


79 


.9 


I J„ 


t .5 


i .60 


63 


.9 


ol .30 


44 .36 


.35 


.92 


.27 




60 


33 




1.02 


IJU 


1 74. 




1.69 


1-02 


.97 


.as 


1.0 


2 I63J 1.2 


5 J 


£ .9, 


59 


I.I 


>| AC 


.5,] .47 


.46 


.95 


.34 




65 


1 ,9 




1 08 


,5 


1.97 


.91 


' 


1 07 


,07 


.67 


1.0 


4 Z.22L5 


1.0 


2 III 


94 




A #. 


.S3 .Si 


Ao| LIS 


.44- 




SO 


133 




14, 


1.7 


2 03 


1 23 


2.06 


1.11 


,42 


.93 


1.0 


5 2.47Jl.7 


2 I.I 


7 1.13 


1.03 


1.4 


7j .46 


.as] 55 


ee 


1.49 


.57 


' 


03 


1 50 




1 52 


\a 


2.05 


IM 


2.4, 


,.53 


,.50 


1.52 


1.5 


1 Z.63J 1.7 


5 1.4 


2 1.30 


1.73 




\ m 


i.osj .as 


79 


1.65 


1.19 


, 


42 


I 8<S 


J2.22 


19 


2 4-7 


1.91 


2.80 


1.40 


1.58 


,5* 


\JS 


4 2.7OJ2.0 


5 I 4 


9 1.72 


,80 


J. 9 


.79 


,.*\ .... 


1.09 


1.73 


1.25 


, 


4-9 


3 is 




2.36 


2. * 


2.5C 


ZJS 


4.19 


1.97 


l/Gl 


I.S7 


2.5 


2 2.71 2.4 


( 2.1 


4- 2.00 


iad 


2.3. 


io. 


I.4-2J 1.23 


1.39 


1.96 


1.97 


1 


97 


367 




4 73 


Z> 


3 3.5 


3,94 


4.37 


3.98 


2.47 


2.42 


3.0 


2 3.20J 3.0 


sJ Z. 


7 2 77 


2.6< 


3.2 


1 1.66 


lj«| 1.66 


1.7 3 


2.4-1 


3.01 


271 


J 08 


MAXIMUM 


4 7« 


3.0 


3 98 


4.45 


4 79 


4:93 


3M 


5.29 


5.5 


5 4.24J4.4 


9 J.« 


5 5.02 


62E 


4.6 


7Jit37 


273) 2.29 


2.80 


2.46 


3.73 


3.20 


J. 76 




GENESEE RIVER, N.Y 
I07O SQ'M. OR. A 


OSWXGO, R. 
AT 03WECO,N.Y. 
SOOO ofl.MlLES 


BLACK R 

N.r. : -, 

1689 SQ. MILES 


LAKE CHAMPLAIN 
77S0SQ.M. 


MOHAWK R.N Y 

LITTLE FALLS 

1308 5Q.M. 


HUDSON R 
FT EOWARC33 
2800 5C.V, 


YEAR 


9* 


95 


96 


'97 


AV 


'98 39 pO 


'01 '0 


2 AV 


<37 


98 


'99 


'00 


'01 


AV 


99 


'00 '0 


I AV. 


'99 


+ ' 


72 


AV 


fes 


bo 


'01 


AV 


MINIMUM 


14 


.10 


.16 




.13 


J^L 


37 


20 




&t 


.4 


5* 


86 




58 


.85 . 


8 74 


n 


4aj .« 




.50 


26 




^5 


.40 




2? 


■17 


.17 




.19 


.27J ./2| .13 


.37 


22 




.72- 


5 


to 


,.,3 


.76 


.47 


92 . 


32 .80 


Xi 


S3\ « 




5-7 


57 


.44 


6S 


.«-9 




44 


" 


.20 




25 


.3t|,II| .17 


.38 


26 




.79 




.44 


1.2! 


.8' 


.89 


1.04 . 


98 .97 


39 


6 .as 




63 


.«' 


45 




.54. 




£1 


.12 


24 




.32 


Ad .15 .19 


43 


29 




87 


6. 


.7" 


I.*i 


.91 


MS 


1.20 1 


zt 


.21 


£l| *9J 5X 




73 


4£ 


.59 


.78 


.6 2 




&2 


.13 


A 




.45 


.7»| .22] 4« 


38 


.52 




, l& 


S 


.&. 


,.5( 


1 .09 


1.25 


,41 I 


32 


.33 


78, 


4,= 




ee 


56 




.63 


.62 




84 


.a 


.17 




.31 




75 


64 






8 


I.5C 




I.4-, 


,.25 


,.5+1, 


33 


.37 


,.,5 


J..» 




I.3Z 


jGt 


1, i3 




.90 




93 


.22 


82 




.ee 


Si.J 42 


1 07 


77 




,66 


1.2 


1.5- 


228 


1.69 


1.37 




35 


46 


,3d 


,. 8 J,.33| 




1.51 


|,26 


MS 


.56 


1.12 




1.10 


.47 


91 




.S3 


I24J .49J 93 


1.36 


1.01 




use 


ia 


2.24 


2.65 


2.11 


147 


,.87 1 


S3 


.6 2 


2.0! 


l"1 




1.24 


175 


,. 18 


,06 


1.34 




~*c 


-66 






1.03 


I5l| B&\ .93 


1.45 . 


1.20 




20 


2.4 


2.6- 




2.38 


1.63 


2.06 1 


70 


.80 


rj 


2.92,5 




2 53 


\st 




, 23 


i.*a 


,3, 


132 


1.74 




i.tz 


l.«j| .97] IJ) 


1.45 


1.92 




2.0! 


26 


3.02 


2.81 


2.6S 


1.79 


2.32 2 


70 2.27 


2.5 7 


2 963ozl 




2.S5 


(,.£4 


uijui 


2.11 


r 9 


1.94 


3.00 




2.7a 


l.&sjljsjlflo 


200 . 


1.70 




2.46 


29" 


JO' 


3:8 


2.9, 


2.6C 


2.42 3 


66 2.9 6 


zea^ 


4.2335<J 




J5i 


3.4. 


255|3.00 


2,99 


MAXIMUM |*43 




536 




3.27 


1.9sjl53|ZflO 


3.39 


2.43 




SK 


7.3 


7.37 


760 


BBS 


J., 7 


2.86 3 


35 3.3 3 


6.2< 


6.2j 5 4 




5 95 


60. 


6,04] 7.55 


G.55 








KENNEBEC RIVER , WATERVILLE, ME 
4410 SQ. MILES. 


ANDROSCOGGIN R 

Rl/MFORO FALLS, 

2220 SO.M. 


MERRIMAC RIVER 

LAWRENCE MASS 

4553 5a- M. 


CONNECTICUT R. 

H0LY0KE.MAS5 

8660 SQM 


YEAR 


'33 


'24 


'95 


'96 


'9 7 


'93 


'99 AV. 


<96 


'37 


98 


99 


AV. 


'30 


'9, 


'9 2 


'93 


'94 


95 


'96 


'97 


'98 


99 


AV. 


'96 


97 


se. 


AV 


MINIMUM 


.36 


.3- 


,88 


.'2 


.40 


.28 


.59 


.44 


77 


.72 


.77 




.75 


.63 


.47 


47 


.52 


.3' 


.37 


A* 


48 


58 


.32 




.46 


J-l 


42 


M 


40 




M 




.4-0 


,«4 


8, 


.43 


.59 


.53 


79 


.72 


.79 




.76 


,13 


.54 




.57 


.* 


.48 


.45 


.6, 


.64 






.57 


.4-2 


53 


57 


50 




,5< 




.41 


.7/ 


64- 


.4 6 


.7, 


.58 


.87 


.76 


84- 




.92 


,.44. 


,34 


87 


6, 


.4 


.57 


.67 


.75 


.83 


46 




.7, 


55 


58 


63 


59 




.51 


.6 


,4S 


.77 


66 


5, 


73 


.64 


.90 


.8, 


se 




.66 


,53 


.56 




&5 


.5 




,77 


,01 


1.4, 


5^ 




.as 


62 


,67 


, 00 


76 




.33 


.4 


.46 




1.04 


.53 


.77 


. 69 


.90 


62 


se 




.87 


1.70 


.64 


,05 


74 


.5< 


.65 


.94 


,,'2 


1.42 


.6 




' 

94- 1 


.60 


25 


,12 


I.C3 




S3 


.0 


.41 


.98 


1.21 


.54 


.89 


. eo 


.93 


1.03 


.98 




.96 


1.73 


.90 


,06 


79 


6C 


.67 


se 


,.28 


1.42 


,6 




■'3 


.05 


,.67 


, ,3 


1.30 






.ei 


.80 


,.2, 


,23 


73 


.92 


.91 


,.38 


104 


27 




1.24 


'64 


1.00 


, 28 


.97 


.6; 


236 


,.14 


2.22 


1.71 


.65 




.24 


,.,2 


1,74 


,3, 


1.39 




SI 


.9 


1.27 


,.25 


,.65 


. 73 




1.13 


\M 


,.,7 


,27 




'.28 


,.95 


,.6, 


, 43 


,.,0 


.76 


(.28 


1*4. 


Z.Z3 


1.93 


I.OJ 




.49 1 


1.26 


2.SI 


,40 


1,72 




1.3 


1.3 


1.37 


:.o7 


2.94 


,.,4 


2.26 


-.77 


1.49 


7.98 


2,4 




2.20 


2 70 


2 92 


1.6, 


1.11 


.9* 


1.57 


1.46 


2,32 


2.(7 


173 




1.64 


1.7.7 


2.58 


,82 


1.89 




\M 


1-7 


1.44 


2.98 


2.96 


2 00 


256 


2.20 


2.45 


3,,r 


131 




2.64 


3,4 


2.96 


,.79 


236 


1.33 


2.06 


20^ 


2.3 7 


2.42 


7.0" 




«.«L 




LIS 


2.,* 




34" 


2' 


2., 7 


387 


3.75 


461 


5 70 


3.99 


3.39 


J.56 


I 19 




3.71 


3M 


4 73 


1.87 


342 


2 4 


2.10 


4. 001 


2.7£ 


U4 


!.= 




3.08 |3.I4 


27, 


3.36 


3.08 


MAXIMUM 


6.92 


A3 


5.21'. 


4.2, 


6.10 


5 31 


6.74 


5.7 2 


54, 


5.33 


l.Z, 




5.02 


3 79 


5,9 


2.25 


4,28 


3,6 


4.35 


462 


3.87 


*09 


5£, 




1.14- J4.89 


%ie 


4 09 


4.36 



138 Stream Flow 

is 0.48 cubic feet per second per square mile, the minimum for 
any year during the period of observations being 0.31, and the 
maximum 0.63. 

On the Oswego River in the same state, with no very 
great difference in total annual rainfall, the average minimum 
monthly flow is 0.20, the minimum for any year being 0.11, 
and the maximum 0.37. These figures, it must be remem- 
bered, are averages for each month, and the actual minimum 
flow for the period is often a much less quantity. (See dia- 
grams 19 to 25.) 

89. Depth of Rainfall and Run-Off. — Kuichling has pre- 
pared several diagrams showing the relations between the 
depth of rainfall and run-off in certain eastern rivers for each 
month. These diagrams are reproduced in Diagram 28. On 
these diagrams the figures not enclosed are numbers of obser- 
vations from drainage basins Nos. 1 to 8 inclusive, of the follow- 
ing list. The figures enclosed in circles are the numbers of ob- 
servations from drainage basins Nos. 1 to 28 inclusive. 

WATERSHEDS FROM WHICH OBSERVATIONS 
WERE PLATTED ON DIAGRAM 28. 

No. of 

Area in Years 

No. Name of Basin. Sq. Miles. Record. 

1. Croton River, N. Y 33&o 30 

2. Perkiomen Creek, Pa 152.0 13 

3. Neshaminy Creek, Pa J 39-3 J 3 

4. Tohickon Creek, Pa 102.2 14 

5. Sudbury River, Mass 75.2 25 

6. Hemlock Lake, N. Y 43.1 12 

7. Mystic Lake, Mass 2j.y 18 

8. Cochituate Lake, Mass 19.0 33 

9. Cayadutta Creek, N. Y 40.0 2 

10. Saquoit Creek, N. Y 51.5 2 

11. Oneida Creek, N. Y 59.0 2 

12. Nine-Mile Creek, N. Y 63.0 1 

13. Garoga Creek, N. Y 80.8 1 

14. E. Branch Fish Creek, N. Y 104.0 1 



The Water Year 139 



Oriskany Creek, N. Y 144.0 



2 



15 

16. Mohawk River, N. Y., at Ridge Mills. . 153.0 2 

17. W. Branch Fish Creek, N. Y 187.0 3 

18. Salmon River, N. Y 191.0 1 

19. East Canada Creek, N. Y 256.0 2 

20. West Canada Creek, N. Y 518.0 2 

21. Schroon River, N. Y 563.0 4 

2.2.. Passaic River, N. J 822.0 17 

23. Raritan River, N. J 879.0 3 

24. Genesee River, N. Y 1070.0 7 

25. Mohawk River, N. Y., at Little Falls. . . 1306.0 2 

26. Black River, N. Y 1889.0 4 

2y. Hudson River, N. Y., at Mechanicsville, 

N. Y 4500.0 12 

28. Muskingum River, 5828.0 8 

Diagram 29 shows the relation of monthly rainfall to run- 
off on the Rock River watershed in Illinois.* (See Rafter, The 
Relation of Rain Fall to Run-Off; also diagrams 30, 31 
and 32.) 

90. The Water Year. — The water year naturally divides 
itself into periods beginning, approximately, with December, 
and ending, approximately, with the following November. The 
period from December to and including May is usually termed 
the ''storage" period; June, July and August constitute the 
"growing" period, and September, October and November 
the "replenishing" period. These periods vary somewhat each 
year, and are not necessarily limited by our artificial division 
of months. During the storage period the winter snows and 
the spring rains saturate the ground to a great depth, and a 
large amount of water is held in storage, both in lakes, swamps, 
and forests, and in the soils, gravels, and other pervious strata. 
That portion of the stored water within the boundaries of a 
watershed that lie above the level of the bed of the stream is, 
or may become, available to supply the stream. Portions of 
this stored water are used by growing vegetation, and portions 
are evaporated from the soil. The remaining portions will 
supply a stream to a certain extent, regardless of the amount 

* Water Power of the Rock River. Mead. 



RELATIONS BETWEEN DEP" 



Emil K 
NEW York 3 




2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 JO II 12 13 14 15 

DEPTH OP RAINFALL (R) PER MONTH IN INCHES. 



DIACRAM 28 



iS OF RAINFALL AND RUNOFF 



REPORT 

OF 

:hlinq, c .e 

tb Canal Survey 




1 e 3 4-5 6 7 6 9 KD II 12 13 14 15 

DEPTH OF RAINFALL(R)PERMONTH IN INCHES. 



142 



Stream Flow 



DIAGRAM 29 

* t 





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TOLL LINES SHOW MEAN MONTHLY RUNOFF JN INCHES IN DEPTH OVER WATER SHED. 

Showing Relation of Mean Monthly Stream Flow to Mean Monthly Rainfall 
on Rock River Watershed. 



of monthly rainfall, and will produce a stream flow for sev- 
eral months even without rain. 

The ground water is called upon to furnish more or less 
of the stream flow sometimes early in May, and seldom later 
than the beginning of June, and during June, July and August 
the rainfall is rarely sufficient to take care of the evaporation 
and plant growth without something of a draft on the ground 
water. The stream flow for this period is usually entirely de- 



Stream Losses from Percolation 143 

pendent on the ground water, except during exceptional rain 
storms. By the end of the growing period the ground water 
is often so depleted as to be capable of storing five or six inches 
or more of rainfall. 

During the replenishing period the ground again begins 
to receive its store of water, and with favorable rainfalls, be- 
comes full during the storage period of the winter and spring. 

The relation of Rainfall to Run-Off and Evaporation 
(which is, in this case, intended to include all other methods 
of disposal except run-off), for various periods of the water 
year, and for various eastern rivers, are illustrated in Tables 
33> 34> 35 an d 36. These relations are also graphically shown 
on Diagrams 30, 31 and 32. 

These tables and diagrams have been reproduced from 
Rafter, The Relation of Rainfall to Run-Off*, to which refer- 
ence is given for further discussion. 

91. Stream Losses from Percolation. — While the seepage 
or ground water ordinarily furnishes the dry weather flow of 
streams, yet in some cases the river water may again partially 
seep into their banks at other portions of their courses, if the 
condition of the ground water level so permits. This condi- 
tion seldom exists, however, except in the flood stages of a 
stream where the rapid rise in the waters of the stream is 
greater than that of the ground water and reverses the ground 
water slope in the immediate vicinity of the river. (See 
Table $J.) 

In some cases in the arid regions, the waters of streams 
entirely disappear, their waters, aside from those portions 
lost by evaporation, being entirely lost in the strata. Such 
streams usually originate in humid regions, or in the moun- 
tain snows, and steadily decrease in size as they flow, con- 
stantly losing their waters by evaporation and percolation 
until they terminate in a sink. Such waters either form a 
morass of sufficient extent so that the surface evaporation dis- 
poses of the remaining stream flow, or the waters continue 
as an underflow in the pervious strata.* 

* See Slichter, The Motions of Underground Waters, p. 38. 



44 



Stream Flow 
TABLE 33. 

Connecticut River, 1873-1885, inclusive. 
[Catchment area =10,234 square miles, j 





1872. 


1873. c 


1874. « 


Period. 


Rain- 
fall . 


Run- • 
off. 


Evapo- 
ration. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
fall. 


Evapo- 
ration. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Evapo- 
ration. 


Storags , 


14. 92 

18.06 
12.42 


13. 30 
6.C9 
6.84 


1.62 
12.67 

5.73 


18.16 
10. 11 
15.04 


21.80 
2.71 
5.22 


3.64 

7.40 
9.82 


23.08 
14.37 
7.76 


2a 04 
6.62- 
2.15 


0.04 

7.75 


Replenishing 


5.61 


Year 


48.30 


£8.23 


20.07 


43.31 


29.73 


13.58 


45.21 


31.81 


13.40 






Period 


1875. 


1878. a 


1877. 




17. 51 
14.55 
11.38 


15/47 
3.80 
3.60 


2.04 
10.75 
7.78 


22. 50 
12.51 
10.57 


24.74 
3.35 
2.28 


< 

- 2.24 

9.18 

8.29 


18.09 
14.00 
13.08 


12.68 
2.91 

5.27 


5.41 




11.08 

' 7.81 










43.42 


22.87 


20.55 


45.58 


30.37 


15.21 


45. 17 


20.86 


24 31 







1878. 



1879. 



Storage 

Growing 

Replenishing 



21.88 
| 13.59 
! 10.56 



Year 



38.02 
3.45 
3.03 



24.53 



3.86 
10.14 
7.50 



21.50 



23.19 I 21.49 
16.07 | 2.92 



48.74 | 27.34 



1.70 
13.15 
6.55 



21.40 



18.29 
11.82 
11.58 



41.69 



14.78 
2.45 
2.62 



■19.85 



"Not included in 



6 Rainfall computed, approximate. 

DIAGRAM 30. 



3.51 
9. ST 

8.96 



21.84 



Period. 




1881. 






1882. 






1883. 






20.83 
11.30 
11.38 


16.02 
2.93 
3.39 


4.81 
8.37 
7.99 


520.50 
611.45 
66.50 


15.14 
3.35 

2.17 


8.36 
8.10 
4.33 


612.85 
613.50 
68.20 


8.73 
2.51 
1.37 


4.12 




10.99 




4 83 






Year 


43.51 


22.34 


21.17 


38.45 


17.66 


20.79 


32.55 


12.61 


19.94 







Period. 


1884. 


1885. 




21.42 
12.14- 
8.51 


20.20 
2.79 
2.61 


1.22 
9.35 
5.90 


18.58 
14.82 
11.76 


13.63 
3.20 
5.61 


4.95 




11.62 




6.15 






Year 


42.07 


25.60 


16.47 


45.16 


22.44 


22.72 








— Rnn-ofT d;»gnun of Hudson and Oen.woo riveni 



Monthly Flow 
TABLE 34. 

—Hudson River, 1888-1901, inclusive. 
[Catchment area=4,500 square miles.] 



145 





1888. 


1889. 


1890. 


Period. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Evapo- 
ration. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Evapo- 
ration, 


Ram- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Evapo- 
ration. 




20.40 
10.25 
13.27 


17.06 
2.06 
4.53 


3.34 
8.20 

8.74 


17.10 
15.05 
10.81 


14.04 
4.28 
3.41 


3.06 
10.79 
7.40 


24.75 
13.50 
12.10 


19.28 

2.85 

6.81 


5.47 




10.65 




5.29 






Year . 


4a. 92 


a23.64 


20.28 


a42.96 


21.71 


21.25 


"50.35 


28.94 


21.41 








1891. 


1892. 


1893. 




20.69 
13.49 

8.78 


16.59 

2.07 
1.90 


4.10 
11.42 

6.88 


24.95 
19.12 
9.80 


22.50 
6.87 
3.71- 


2.45 
12.25 
6.09 


19.83 
13.37 
8.98 


15.20 
3.12 

3.59 


4.63 




10.25 




5.39 








42.96 


20.56 


22.40 


'53.87 


33.08 


20.79 


48.18 


21.91 


20.27 









1894. 




1895. 




1896. 




21.37 
8.73 
11.87 


13.18 
3.20 
2.99 


8.19 
5.53 

8.88 


15.79 
10.37 
10.51 


11.68 
2.36 
3.42 


4.11 
8.01 
7.09 


22.17 
10.25 
12.79 


16.52 
2.53 
4.58 


5.65 




7.72 




8.21 






Year 


41.97 


19.37 


22.60 


36.67 


17.46 


19.21 


45.21 


23.62 


21.58 








1897 


1898. 


1899. 


Storage 

Growing 

Replenishing 


19.77 
15.80 
10.94 


14.60 

7.79 
3.80 


5.17 
8.01 
7.14 


22.80 
13.52 
12.19 


18.61 
3.24 

5.27 


4.19 
10.28 
6.92 


19.48 
7.40 
8.91 


15.15 
1.63 
2.76 


4.33 
5.77 
6.15 


Year 


46.51 


26.19 


20.32 


48.51 


27.12 


21.39 


35.79 


19.54 


16.25 




1900. 




1901. 




Storage 


21.13 
12.11 
12.17 


16.12 
2.30 
2.25 


5.01 
9.81, 
9.92 


18.47 
15.09 
9.02 


14.84 
4.02 
3 


3.63 




11.07 




6 02 












Year 


45.41 


20.67 


24.74 


42.58 


21.86 


20.72 







a Approximate. 

DIAGRAM 31 




Bus-off diagram of Moat-mrum Blv 



146 



Stream Flow 



TABLE 35. 

Genesee River, 1890-1898, inclusive. 

[Catchment area = 1,070 square miles.] 







1890. 






1891. 






1892. 




Period. 


Rain- | Run- Evapo- 
fall. 1 off. j ration. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Evapo- 
ration. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Evapo- 
ration. 




"23.01 
"10.52 
"14.01 


612.96 
2.51 
5.75 


610.05 
8.01 
8.26 


18.22 

12.78 

7.12 


11.88 
1.06 
1.11 


6.34 
11.72 
6.01 


19.84 
15.30 

6.55 


9.38 

4.90 

, 1.14 


10.46 


Growing 


10.40 

5.41 








"47.54 


6 21.22 


"26.32 


38.12 


14.05 


24.07 


41.69 


15.42 


26.27 








1893. 


1894. 




1895. 






20.65 
9.55 
9.10 


611.10 

61.00 

1.25 


6 9.55 
68.55 

7.85 


27.71 
7.95 
12.13 


15.73 
1.46 
2.19 


1L98 
6.49 
9.94 


13.20 
11.13 
6.67 


5.63 
.36 

.68 


7.57 


Growing..-. 


10.77 
5.03 








39.30 


613.35 


625.95 


47.79 


19.38 


28.41 


31.00 


6.67 


24.33 









1896. 


1897. 


1898. 


Storage 

Growing 


I 
17.84 

10.28 j 

12.56 


9.25 
.83 

2.72 


8.59 
9.45 

9.84 


15.68 
11.92 
6.79 


7.31 

1.34 

.73 


8.37 
10.58 
6.06 


18.66 
14.15 
9.69 


10.40 
2.05 
2.68 


8.2* 
12.10 
7.01 






Year 


40.68 


12.80 


27.88 


34.39 


t.38 


25.01 


42.50 


15.13 


27.37 



"For years 1890-1892 the runoff is that of Oatka Creek, a tributary of Genesee 
rainfall of Oatka Creek catchment area has been taken rather than that of entire 
area. 

''Approximate. 

TABLE 36. 



River, and the 
upper Genesee 



Muskingum River, 1888-1895, inclusive. 
[Catchment area=5,828 square miles.] 





1888. 


1889. 


1890. 


Period. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Evapo" 
ration- 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Evapo- 
ration. 


Rain- 
fall. 


Run- 
off. 


Evapo- 
ration. 




17.16 
14.31 
11.14 


5.17 
1.77 
3.39 


11.99 
12.54 
7.75 


13.52 
12.12 
10.24 


6.02 
1.24 
.96 


7.50 
10.88 
9.28 


27.77 
13.68 
15.52 


18.07 
2.64 
6.13 


9.70 




11.04 




9.39 








42.61 


10.33 


32.28 


35.88 


8.22 


27.66 


56.97 


26.84 


30.13 









1891. 


1892. 


1893. 




16.72 
13.56 

7.08 


12.42 

1.77 
1.37 


4.30 
11.79 

5.71 


20.39 
16.54 

4.81 


9.06 
3.65 

.67 


11.33 
12.89 
4.14 


25.04 
8.31 
9.01 


14.13 
1.22 
.85 


10.91 




7.09 


Replenishing 


8.16 


Year 


37.36 


16.56 


21.80 


41.74 


13.38 


28.36 


42.36 


16.20 


26.16 


j 1894. 


J895. 


Storage 









16.93 
4.56 


7.63 
.66 
.41 


9.30 
3.90 

8.61 


13.04 

" 9.14 

7.66 


4.04 
.49 
.37 


9.00 
8.65 




9.02 
30.51 


7 29 












Year 


8.70 


21.81 


29. 84 


4.90 


24.94 



Stream Flow 
DIAGRAM 32 



147 




92. Seepage from Artificial Channels. — In artificial chan- 
nels the loss from seepage or percolation is often considerable, 
a large portion of the supply being sometimes needed to main- 
tain the flow. Seepage losses in such cases are so closely re- 
lated to losses by evaporation that it is seldom possible to 
distinguish the exact relation between the two. 

On the proposed enlargement of the Erie Canal, the loss 
from seepage, evaporation, etc., has been calculated at from 
4.5 to 5.5 inches on the total area of the canal each day.* 

In some measured sections of American canals this loss 
has reached as high as 17 inches or more. The majority of 
French and German canals of the better class are so con- 
structed that the loss is not more than 2 inches per day. 

In many irrigation ditches in the west, where the embank- 
ments are carried above the general ground level and are 
made of pervious material, the loss from this source becomes 
an important and often very serious matter, as the loss in 
many cases fully equals the amount of water actually utilized 
in irrigation. 

93. Basis of Estimates of Stream Flow. — No exact law 
for determining the relation of rainfall and stream flow has 
been, or, from the nature of the case, ever can be found, for 
such relations are, of necessity, peculiar to the watershed, and 
subject both to the local conditions of the watershed and to 
the variation in annual climatic conditions. 



* Report on Water Supply for the New York Barge Canal, by 
Kuichling. 



148 



Stream Losses from Percolation 





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Estimates of Stream Flow 149 

A study of the distribution of the monthly rainfall, the 
probable evaporation and deep seepage, together with a de- 
tailed consideration of the physical conditions of the water- 
shed, and limited observations of the actual flow, if consid- 
ered in the light of the large amount of stream flow data which 
is now being yearly recorded, will give an intelligent basis on 
which such flows and their probable variations can be fairly 
estimated. 

LITERATURE. 
Results of Stream Measurements. 
The following contain the data published by the U. S. G. S. : 
Tenth Annual Report, Part I. 
Eleventh Annual Report, Part II. 
Twelfth Annual Report, Part II. 
Thirteenth Annual Report, Part III. 
Fourteenth Annual Report, Part II. 
Bulletin No. 131. 

Sixteenth Annual Report, Part II, Bulletin No. 131. 
Seventeenth Annual Report, Part II, Bulletin No. 140. 
Eighteenth Annual Report, Part IV. Water- Supply Paper No. 11. 
Nineteenth Annual Report, Part IV. Water-Supply Papers Nos. 15 

and 16. 
Twentieth Annual Report, Part IV. Water-Supply Papers Nos. 27 and 28. 
Twenty-first Annual Report, Part IV. Water- Supply Papers Nos. 35 

to 39, inclusive. 
Twenty-second Annual Report, Part IV. Water- Supply Papers Nos. 

47 to 52, inclusive. 
Water- Supply Papers Nos. 65, 66 and 75. 
Water- Supply Papers Nos. 81 to 85, inclusive. 
Water-Supply Papers Nos. 97 to 100, inclusive. 



1888 
1889 
1890, 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 

1898. 
1899 

1900 

1901 
1902 
1903 



Rainfall and Stream Flow. 
Rainfall and Run-Off of New England Atlantic Coast and Southwestern 

Colorado Streams, with Discussion. W. O. Weber. Jour. Asso. 

Eng. Soc, November, 1903. 
The Determination of the Amount of Storm Water. Prof. A. N. Talbot. 

Trans. 111. Soc. Eng. & Surveyors, 1892. 
Waterways for Culverts. W. D. Pence. Proceedings Purdue Society of C. E., 

1903. 
Discharge of Streams in Relation to Rainfall, New South Wales. T. A. 

Coghlan. Trans. Inst. C. E., Vol. 75, p. 176. 
The Rainfall and Run-Off in Relation to Sewage Problems. W. C. Parmalee. 

Asso. Eng. Soc, March, 1898. 
Rainfall, The Amount Available for Water Supply. Desmond Fitzgerald. Jour. 

New Eng. W. Wks. Ass'n. 
A Mathematical Analysis of the Influence of Reservoirs upon Stream Flow. 

Jour. Am. Soc. C. E., June, 1898. 
Data Pertaining to Rainfall and Stream Flow. T. T. Johnson. Jour. Wes. 

Soc. Eng., June, 1896. 
Yield of the Sudbury River Water- Shed in the Freshet of February 10-13, 1886. 

Desmond Fitzgerald. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., September, 1891. 
The Croton Valley Storage. Samuel Mcllroy. Asso. Eng. Soc, 1890. 
The Flow of the Sudbury River, Massachusetts. Alphonse Fteley. Trans. Am. 

Soc. C. E.. Vol. to, July, 1881. 
Rainfall and River Flow. C. C. Babb. Trans. Am. Soc C. E., May, 1893. 
Flow of the West Branch of the Croton River. J. J. R. Krause. Trans. Am. 

Soc. C. E, May. T884. 



150 Stream Flow 

Rainfall Received and Collected on the Water-Sheds of Sudbury River and 

Cochituate and Mystic Lakes. Dexter Brackett. Jour. Asso. Eng. 

Soc., September, 1886. 
On the Amount and Composition of Rain and Drainage Waters, Collected at 

Rothamsted. Jour. Royal Agric. Soc, England. Papers No. 17 and 

22 of Vol. 17, and No. 1 of Vol. 18. 
Storm Flows from City Areas, and Their Calculation. E. W. Clark. Eng. 

News, November 6th, 1902. 
Run-Off of the Sudbury River Drainage Area, 1875-1899, inclusive. C. W. 

Sherman. Eng. News, 1901. 
Data Relating to the Upper Mississippi. Report, Chief of Engineers, U. S. A., 

1896, p. 1843. 
The Water-Supply of the City of New York. Data relating to the Croton. 

Wegmann. N. Y., 1896. 
Annual Reports of the Water Bureau of Philadelphia. Contain complete data 

relating to the Perkiomen, Tohickon and Neshaminy. 
Monthly Data Relating to the Sudbury, Cochituate, and Mystic. Reports of 

the Boston Water Board, and of the Metropolitan Water Board, 

Boston. 
The Hydrogeology of the Upper Mississippi Valley, and of some of the Adjoin- 
ing Territory. Mead. Jour. Ass'n Eng. Soc, 1894, XIII, p. 329. 
Report on Water- Supply of New Jersey. Geo. Survey of N. J., 1894, Vol. III. 
Disposition of Rainfall in the Basin of the Chagres. Gen. H. L. Abbott. 

Monthly Weather Review, February, 1904. 
Report on the Water Power of the Rock River. D. W. Mead, 1904. 

Floods. 
Floods of the Mississippi River, by Park Morrill. Bui. E., U. S. Dept. of 

Agric, 1897. 
The Floods of the Spring of 1903 in the Mississippi Watershed. H. C. Franken- 

field. Bui. M., U. S. Dept. of Agric, 1903. 
The Passaic Flood of 1902. G. B. Holister and M. O. Leighton, W. S. Paper 

No. 88, U. S. G. S. 
The Passaic Flood of 1903. M. O. Leighton, W. S. Paper No. 92, U. S. G. S. 
Destructive Floods in the United States in 1903. E. C. Murphy, W. S. Paper 

No. 96, U. S. G. S. 
The Lessons of Galveston. W. J. McGee. Nat. Geo. Mag., October, 1900. 
Study of the Southern River Floods of May and June, 1901. Eng. News, 

August 7th, 1902. 
The Floods of the Mississippi River. William Starling. Eng. News, April 22nd, 

l8 °7- 
The Increased Elevation of Floods in the Lower Mississippi River. L. W. 

Brown. Jour. Asso. Eng. Soc, 1901. 
The Mississippi Flood of 1897, by William Starling. Eng. News, July 1st, 

1897. 
Flood Damages to Bridges at Paterson, N. J. Eng. News, October 29th, 1903. 
Kansas City Flood of 1903. Eng. News, September 17th, 1903. 
Engineering Aspect of the Kansas City Floods. Eng. Record, September 12th, 

1903. 
The Floods of February 6th, 1896. Geo. Survey of N. J., 1896, p. 257. 
The Flood in the Chemung River. Report State Engineer, N. Y., 1894, P- 3%7- 

Forests in Relation to Rainfall and Stream Flow. 

Data on Stream Flow in Relation to Forests. Geo. W. Rafter. Asso. C. 

Engineering, Cornell Univ., 189 — . 
Influence of Forests on Water Courses. D. D. Thompson. Scientific American 

Sup. No. 307. 
The Forests of Vermont Considered in Relation to Rainfall. 
New Jersey Forests and Their Relation to Water Supply. Abstract of Paper 

Before Meeting of the American Forestry Ass'n, New Jersey, June 

25th, 1900, by C. C. Vermeule, Eng. News, July 26th, 1900; also Eng. 

Record, Vol. 42, p. 8. 
The Influence of Forests upon the Rainfall and upon the Flow of Streams. 

Geo. F. Swain. Jour. New Eng. Water Works Ass'n. 



i5i 



CHAPTER X. 
GROUND WATER. 

94. General Principles. — That portion of the rainfall, on 
any watershed, which sinks into the ground, fills the pervious 
stratum until a gradient is established sufficient to maintain 
a flow, and then slowly moves towards the stream. The gra- 
dient established usually rises quite rapidly from the surface of 
the stream, into which the water flows, toward the divide. The 
slope depends principally on the quantity of the ground water 
and the relative porosity of the stratum through which it 
moves. 

When the stream flows through pervious material the 
ground water plain enters the river coincident with the river 
surface. When the stream has cut its channel into impervious 
material, the ground water appears as springs along its banks, 
at the junction of the impervious stratum with the overlying 
pervious deposit. 

95. Occurrence of Ground Water. — Water occurs in all 
geological strata and probably to a depth of about six miles 
below the surface. It is found in quantities sufficient for prac- 
tical purposes only in the upper portion of these deposits, 
and under conditions which may be classified as follows : 

First. In the granites, traps, igneous, metamorphic rocks, 
and other impervious strata only in cracks and fissures. 

Second. Occasionally in channels and waterways of lime- 
stone rock, which channels have been created by the action 
of the drainage waters themselves. 

Third. In the pervious deposits of the glacial drift. These 
deposits consist of clays, sands and gravels, which cover 
the country to a depth of from a few inches to, in some cases, 
several hundred feet, over the areas formerly occupied by 
the ice of the glacial invasion. (See Area marked "Ice Work," 
Map 12.) 



152 Groundwater 

Fourth. In the pervious mantle rocks which cover to a 
greater or less extent all of the indurated deposits outside of 
the Glaciated Area. 

Fifth. In the lacustrian and fluvial deposits of ancient 
and modern lakes and rivers, which deposits are often laid 
down in stratified form, but are generally less in extent than 
the earlier sedimentary formations. 

Sixth. In the pervious beds of the sedimentary deposits 
which frequently occur under extensive areas. (See Turneaure 
& Russell, Water Supply, Chapter 7; Slichter, The Motion of 
Underground Waters. W. S. & I. Paper No. 67, Chapter 2.) 

96. Laws of Flow. — The flows of ground water are due 
to gravity. With the exception of those waters which occur 
in cavernous limestone, or in coarse gravel, the flow is very 
slow, and seldom amounts to more than a few feet each day. 
(Turneaure & Russell, Water Supply, Chapter 7; Slichter, 
The Motion of Underground Waters, Chapter 1 ; Rafter, The 
Relation of Rainfall to Run-Off, p. 43.) 

97. Artesian Waters. — Most of the stratified deposits are 
at least slightly tilted and when composed of pervious deposits 
lying between impervious strata, may give rise to important 
artesian conditions. Artesian areas of great importance are 
found at numerous places in the United States. The principal 
areas are shown on Map No. 17. Of these areas the upper 
Mississippi Valley, which is one of the most important, has 
been described in some detail in Chapter 5. The Dakota basin 
is also of much importance.* In this area the water bearing 
stratum is the Dakota sandstone belonging to the cretaceous 
period. The outcrop occurs on the slope of the Black Hills 
and the Rocky Mountains, at an elevation of 3,000 ft. or more 
above sea level, and the resulting wells are noted for their 
high pressure. 

The wells of the Red River Valley derive their supply 
from the lacustrian deposits of the extinct Glacial Lake 
Agassiz. This basin is of smaller extent than the preceding, 
but is of considerable local importance.** 

♦Report U. S. G. S., 1895-96, VII. Artesian Waters of the Dakotas. 
N. H. Darton. 

** Monograph XXV, U. S. G. S. Glacial Lake Agassiz. Warren Upham. 



Artesian Water I 5 3 

The Atlantic Coastal system occupies essentially the At- 
lantic and Gulf Coastal Plains. The water in this area is 
obtained from cretaceous deposits, which are spread like a 
mantle on the eastern and southern slopes of the Alleghenies, 
and give rise to the artesian conditions which are developed 
to a considerable extent along the Atlantic Coast, through 
New Jersey, Delaware and Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, 
Alabama, and Western Tennessee.* Such wells are the 
source of the water supplies of many communities in this belt, 
among which may be mentioned Asbury Park, N. J., Charles- 
ton, S. C, Savannah, Ga., and Memphis, Tenn. 

The same Cretaceous deposits afford the artesian condi- 
tions through Texas. In the north-eastern portion of this 
state a large number of artesian wells are developed in the 
Trinity and Puluxy sands. W^ells are also obtained in the 
southern portions of the state in the more recent deposits 
immediately along the coast. § There is also a small artesian 
basin of some local importance along the Pecos River in west- 
ern Texas. 

Numerous minor artesian basins exist in the valleys of the 
Rocky Mountains. Among these are the Denver basin and 
the artesian basin in San Luis Park.t 

A number of basins where favorable artesian conditions 
are found have been reported by Mr. W. C. Knight, of the 
Wyoming Experimental Station.** Some favorable develop- 
ments have been made at Boise, Idaho, and favorable artesian 
conditions also exist in other portions of south-western Idaho 
and in south-eastern Oregon.*** 

Numerous artesian areas have also been developed in 
California, among which may be mentioned those in the vicin- 
ity of San Jose, at the southern end of San Francisco Bay; 

* Bui. 138, U. S. G. S. Artesian Well Prospects in the Atlantic Coastal 
Plain Region. N. H. Darton. 

§ Annual Report U. S. G. S., 1899-1900, Pt. VII. Geology of the Black 
and Grand Prairies of Texas. R. T. Hill. 

t Bui. 16, Agric. College of Colorado. Artesian Wells of Colorado. 
L. G. Carpenter. 

**Bul. 45, Wyoming Experimental Sta. Artesian Basins of Wyoming. 
W. C. Knight. 

*** Bui. 217, U. S. G. S. Notes on the Geology of S. W. Idaho and S. E. 
Oregon. I. C. Russell. 



tear «r ttsr 129* nr iw nr tur. liar nr iw lor ios* toy 101 




87', 



1-UPPEB MISSISSIPPI 
ggl 8 -DAKOTA 

5-BED BIVEB VALLEY 
4 -ATLANTIC COASTAL 



5-MEMPHIS 

6-TEXAS COASTAL ft PGkAItt 



7-TBANS-PECOS 
• •SAN LUIS 

9 -DENVER 

10 WYOMING 
11-1DAHO a OREGON 
13-SANJOSE 

8-9AN JOAQUIN 
M&AN BEfiSABDINO. 



tor" io** top fir" 



Map No. 17 



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156 Groundwater 

also extensive developments in the San Joaquin valley, 1 and 
in Southern California, at San Bernardino and Pasadena. 2 

There are also numerous other localities where artesian 
conditions of local importance have been developed in the 
glacial drift and in other geological deposits. Some of the 
areas shown on the map are not greatly developed, but are 
considered of sufficient importance for at least passing men- 
tion. (Turneaure & Russell, Water Supply, Sections 95-103; 
Slichter, The Motion of Underground Water, Chapter 3.) 

LITERATURE. 
Ground Water. 

The Water Resources of Indiana and Ohio. Leverett. Report U. S. Geo. 

Survey, 1896-97, p. 419. 
The Rock Waters of Ohio. Orton. Report U. S. Geo. Survey, 1897-98, p. 633. 
Report on the Geology and Water Resources of Nebraska West of the One 

Hundred and Third Meridian. Darton. Report U. S. Geo. Survey, 

1897-98, p. 719. 
Principles and Conditions of the Movements of Ground- Water. King. Report 

U. S. Geo. Survey, 1897-98, pp. 67-294. 
Theoretical Investigation of the Motion of Ground- Water. Slichter. Report 

U. S. Geo. Survey, 1897-98, pp. 295-384. 
The Underground Water of the Arkansas Valley in Eastern Colorado. Gilbert. 

Report U. S. G. S., 1895-96, Part II, p. 557. 
The Water Resources of Illinois. Leverett. Report U. S. G. S., 1895-96, Part 

II, p. 701. 
Utilizing a Spring as a Source of Water-Supply for a Town. Hawes. Jour. 

New Eng. W. W. Ass'n, 1896, XI, p. 156. 
History and Description of the Water Supply of the City of Brooklyn, 1896. 

de Varona. Brooklyn Dept. of City Works. 
The Selection of Sources of Water Supply. Stearns. Jour. Ass'n Eng. Soc, 

1891, X, p. 485. 
Experiences Had During the Last Twenty-five Years with Waterworks Having 

an Underground Source of Supply. Salbach. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 

1893, XXX, p. 293. 
The Development of Percolating Underground Waters. Eng. News, 1895, 

XXXIII, p. 116. 
On the Subterranean Water in the Chalk Formation of the Upper Thames, and 

Its Relation to the Supply of London. Harrison. Proc. Inst. C. E., 

1890, CV, p. 22. 

Artesian Waters and Wells. 

Preliminary Report of the Artesian Basin of Wyoming. Bui. No. 45, Wyoming 

Exp. Station. 
Artesian Well Prospects in the Atlantic Coastal Plain Region. Darton. Bui. 

No. 138, U. S. G. S. 
Artesian Wells of Idaho. (See Geology and Water Resources of the Snake 

River Plains of Idaho. Russell. Bui. No. 199, U. S. G. S.) 
Artesian Wells of the Upper Mississippi Valley. (See Hydro-Geology of the 

Upper Mississippi Valley. D. W. Mead. Jour. Ass'n Eng. Soc, 

Vol. XIII, p. 329.) 



1 Eng. Record, February 17th, 1894. Artesian Wells in the San Joaquin 
Valley. 

2 W. S. & I., Paper No. 8r. California Hydrography. J. B. Lippincott 



No. 
No. 


7- 

12. 


No. 


30. 


No. 
No. 


31- 

53- 



Artesian Water 157 

Requisite and Qualifying Conditions of Artesian Wells. T. C. Chamberlain. 

5th Annual Report, Director of the U. S. G. S., p. 133. 
Artesian Basins in Northwestern Idaho and Southeastern Oregon. Russell. 

Water Supply and Irrigation Papers No. 78. 
Artesian Wells of the Gulf Coastal Plain. 4th Annual Report Geological Survey 

of Texas, 1892. 
Artesian Waters of the Llano Estacado. G. G. Shumond. Bui. No. 1, Geo. 

Survey of Texas, 1892. 
Preliminary Investigation to Determine the Proper Location of Artesian Wells 

Within the Area of the 97th Meridian, and East of the Foothills of 

the Rocky Mountains. Senate Executive Document No. 222, 51st 

Congress, 1st Session, 1890. 
Geological Reports of the Artesian and Underflow Investigation Between 97th 

Meridian in Longitude and Foothills of the Rocky Mountains. Senate 

Document No. 41, Parts 1, 2, 3 and 4; 52nd Congress, 1st Session, 

1892. 
See also the following Water Supply and Irrigation Papers of the 
U. S. G. S.: 

No. 4. A Reconnaissance in Southeastern Washington, by I. C. Russell. 1897. 
No. 6. Underground Waters of Southeastern Kansas, by Erasmus Haworth. 

1897. 
Seepage Waters of Northern Utah, by Samuel Fortier. 1897. 

Underground Waters of Southeastern Nebraska, by N. H. Darton. 

1898. 
Water Resources of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, by A. C. Lane. 

1899. 
Lower Michigan Mineral Waters, by A. C. Lane. 1899. 
Geology and Water Resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho, Pt. I, by 

I. C. Russell. 1901. 
No. 54. Geology and Water Resources of Nez Perces County, Idaho, Pt. II, by 

I. C. Russell. 1901. 
No. 55. Geology and Water Resources of a Portion of Yakima County, Wash., 

by G. O. Smith. 1901. 
No. 59. Development and Application of Water in Southern California, Pt. I, 

by J. B. Lippincott. 1902. 
No. 60. Development and Application of Water in Southern California, Pt. II, 

by J. B. Lippincott. 1902. 
No. 67. The Motion of Underground Waters, by C. S. Slichter. 1902. 
No. yy. Water Resources of Molokai, Hawaiian Islands, by Waldemar Lind- 

gren. 1903. 
No. 90. Geology and Water Resources of Part of the Lower James River Val- 
ley, South Dakota, by J. E. Todd and C. M. Hall. 1904. 
Also Professional Papers No. 17. Preliminary Report on the Geology and 

Water Resources of Nebraska West of the One Hundred and Third 

Meridian, by N. H. Darton. 1903. 
Preliminary Paper on Artesian Wells, Page 1, Monthly Review of Iowa 

Weather and Crop Service, Vol. 2, April, 1891. 
Power from Artesian Wells. Engineering Magazine, October, 1895. 
The Artesian Wells of Southern Wyoming. Bui. No. 20, Wyo. Exp. Sta. 
Some Particulars of An Artesian Well Bored Through the Oolithic Rocks at 

Bourne, Lincolnshire. James Pilbrow. Page 245, Vol. 75, Proc. 

Inst. C. E. 
The Artesian Wells of Iowa. W. H. Norton. Iowa Eng. Soc, 1898, p. 98. 
Artesian Wells as a Water Supply for Philadelphia. O. C. S. Carter. Jour. 

Franklin Inst., September, 1893. 
Artesian Well Practice in the Western United States. Compiled from a Gov- 
ernment Report. Eng. News, 1891, XXV, p. 172, et seq. 
Artesian Wells of Colorado. Bui. No. 16, State Agric. College, 1891. 
Artesian Wells in South Lincolnshire. J. C. Gill. Vol. 101, Part III, Proc. 

Inst. C. E. 
Artesian Wells of the Great Plains. Dept. of Agric, 1882. 



158 Groundwater 

Chemical Analysis of the White Silver Water of the Artesian Well, Lafayette, 

Indiana. Report of C. M. Wetherill, Lafayette, 1858. 
Artesian Wells of Denver. Report by Special Committee of the Colorado 

Scientific Soc. Published by the Society, 1884. 
Geological Conditions Affecting the Water Supply of Houses and Towns. 

Lecture by Joseph Prestwich, Oxford, 1876. 
Artesian Wells of Iowa. W. H. Norton. Vol. 6, Iowa Geo. Survey. 
Artesian Wells in Kansas. Robert Hay. 22nd Report Kansas Academy of 

Science. 
Artesian Water Supply of Galveston, Texas. Eng. News, p. 138, Vol. 29. 
The World's Use of Artesian Wells. Eng. News, May 16th, 1891. 
Artesian Wells, Notes on Drilling. Eng. News, July 25th, 1885. 
Artesian Wells in New England. Report of Water Com. of Taunton, Mass., 

for 1889. 
Artesian Wells for Water Supply, Chatham and Madison, N. J. Eng. News, 

p. 92, Vol. 42. 
The Large Artesian Well Plant at Camden, N. J. Eng. News, May nth, 1899. 
Artesian Well at City Park, Davenport, Iowa. Scientific Am. Sup., April 13th, 

1889. 
The Glenwood Well. Iowa C. E. & Surveyors Soc, 1895. 
The Deep Artesian Well at Galveston, Texas. Eng. News, August nth, 1892. 
Artesian Wells in Dakota. Eng. News, April 13th, 1889. 
Artesian Wells of South Dakota. Fire and Water, July 18th, 1891. 
St. Augustine Artesian Water. Eng. News, February 20th, 1892. 
St. Augustine's Great Artesian Well. Fire and Water, March 2nd, 1889. 
St. Augustine's Well. Eng. News, April 2nd, 1892. 
Marion Artesian Well, Charleston, S. C. Eng. News, April 4th, 1891. 
The Great Artesian Well at St. Augustine, Florida. Eng. News, April 6th, 

1889. 
Notes on Artesian Water, and the Effects of Irrigation on Sub-Surface Water 

in the San Joaquin Valley. Eng. Record, February 17th, 1894. 
Artesian Wells. Scientific Am. Sup., January 4th, 1879. 

Artesian Wells in France. Herbert. Paris. Eng. News (?), June 16th, 1888. 
Subterranean Waters of the Ouednir. Scientific Am. Sup., May 26th, 1889. 
A Great Artesian Well. Fire and Water, June 23rd, 1888. 
A New Plant for Increasing the Water Supply at Rockford, 111. D. W. Mead. 

Proc. of Iowa C. E. & Surveyors Soc, 1900. 
Artesian Wells in the Red River Valley. Monograph No. 25, U. S. G. S. The 

Glacial Lake Agassiz. Upham. p. 550. 
The Geological Structure of the Extra-Australian Artesian Basins. Maitland. 

Proc Royal Soc. of Queensland, Vol. XII, April 17th, 1896. Relates 

to the artesian basins of the United States. 
Wells of Northern Indiana, by Frank Leverett. W. S. & I. Papers No. 21. 
Wells of Southern Indiana, by Frank Leverett. W. S. & I. Papers No. 26. 
The Ground Waters of a Portion of South Dakota. J. E. Todd. W. S. & I. 

Papers No. 34. 
Deep Borings of the United States, Part I. N. H. Darton. W. S. & I. 

Papers No. 57. 
Deep Borings of the United States, Part II. N. H. Darton. W. S. & I. 

Papers No. 61. 



159 



CHAPTER XL 

HYDROGRAPHY OF SURFACE WATERS. 

98. Growth of Rivers. — The drainage waters which ulti- 
mately become the stream flow, are the active geological 
agents which have been and are largely instrumental in the 
disintegration of the strata, and are still more largely instru- 
mental in the transportation of the disintegrated material and 
its deposition at other points. 

Geological and topographical conditions modify the possi- 
ble extension of a drainage system, but within the limits estab- 
lished by these conditions, the drainage waters are the direct 
agent in the formation and modification of their own drainage 
area. 

The laws of river development and growth are important 
and must be known and appreciated in all engineering ques- 
tions involving the improvement of rivers and the protection 
of areas subject to river overflow. (Tarr, Physical Geography, 
Chapters XV. and XVI.) 

The principal drainage areas of the United States are 
shown on Map No. 18. 

99. Growth of Lakes. — Lakes are of various origins, and 
are classified by Powell, according to such origin, into Diastro- 
phic, Coulee, Crater, Bayou, and Glacial Lakes.* Examples 
of each of these types are found within the U. S. 

The Great Lakes are Diastrophic in origin, although 
glacial action had much to do with the present form. These 
lakes are of great importance in commerce and transporta- 
tion, and their drainage waters are also utilized to a consider- 
able extent for power purposes. 

* Powell, Physiographic Features. 



129* 127° 125' 123* 12T 119* 117' 113* 113" 111* 109' 107' 105" 103* 101* 



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1 62 Hydrography 

The U. S. Government annually expends large sums in 
the maintenance and improvement of navigation on these 
lakes, and extended observations are made to determine their 
hydrological factors. Many of these observations are of much 
interest, as they afford perhaps the largest available measure 
of change in hydrological conditions. 

ioo. Hydrography of the Great Lakes. — The surfaces of 
these lakes are subject to seasonal and annual fluctuations. 
Seasonal fluctuations are caused largely by the variation of 
the rainfall and run off from month to month, by the effects 
of temperature and by the variation in barometric pressure. 

The annual variations and the variations between different 
years are largely due to the variations in annual rainfall on 
the watersheds, although its distribution through the seasons, 
and the factors which also control stream flow, likewise modify 
these results. 

The mean annual variation in the surface elevation of the 
Great Lakes is shown on Diagram 33. The variation in the 
annual means is shown in Diagram 34, and the variation in 
lake levels from i860 to 1902 is shown on Diagram 35. 

In connection with these diagrams, diagram 26, showing 
the flows of the rivers connecting and draining the Great Lakes 
should be examined. Table 38 gives the principal physical 
data of these lakes. 

101. The Ocean. — The ocean is of the greatest interest 
to the engineer as a highway of commerce. Its influences are 
encountered by the engineer in the improvement of harbors, 
the construction of navigable channels, and the improvement 
of tidal rivers. Its currents have an important influence on 
the temperature and humidity of the lands near which they 
flow. 

The important features of the ocean are : 
First, Its Currents, 
Second, Its Tides, 
Third, Its Waves, 
Fourth, Its Temperatures, 
Fifth, Its Form and Depth. 
(Tarr, Physical Geography, Chapters 9, 10 and II.) 



Hydrograph of the Great Lakes 
DIAGRAM 33. 



163 




DIAGRAM 36, 




Bd« 58 1 



1 66 



Hydrography 
DIAGRAM 34. 



VARIATION OF ANNUAL MEANS 



U.S. DEEP WATERWAYS COMMISSION 

"Water Level Diagram 

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Hydrography of the Great Lakes 



267 



TABLE 38. 

PHYSICAL DATA OF THE GREAT LAKES.* 



Superior Basin. 

Area of drainage basin square miles 76,100 

Area of Lake Superior do 3 2 , I oo 

Discharge St. Mary's River (mean 1882-1898) s-f 69,954 

Discharge St. Mary's River (mean 1860-1903) s-f 77,345 

Annual Rainfall (mean 1882-1898) s-f 147,164 

Annual Rainfall (mean 1882-1898) inches 26.27 

Annual Evaporation (mean 1882-1898) do 13-75 

Temperature (mean 1882-1898) 35-95°F- 

Wind, velocity per hour (mean 1882-1898) miles 9.7 

Humidity, percentage of saturation (mean 1882-1898) . . per cent. 76.5 

Huron and Michigan Basins. 

Area of drainage basin square miles 137,800 

Area of Lakes Huron and Michigan do 45,500 

Discharge St. Clair River (mean 1882-1808) s-f 191,980 

Discharge St. Clair River (mean 1860-1902) s-f 197,820 

Annual Rainfall (mean 1882-1898) s-f 325,857 

Annual Rainfall (mean 1882- 1898) inches 32.12 

Annual Evaporation (mean 1882-1898) do 20.56 

Temperature (mean 1882-1898) 42.o8°F. 

Wind, velocity per hour (mean 1882-1898) miles 10.3 

Humidity, percentage of saturation (mean 1882-1898) . . per cent. 76.5 

St. Clair and Erie Basins. 

Area of drainage basin square miles 40,800 

Area of Lakes St. Clair and Erie do 10,600 

Discharge Niagara River (mean 1882-1898) s-f 207,468 

Discharge Niagara River (mean 1860-1902) s-f 219,843 

Annual Rainfall (mean 1882-1898) s-f 102,308 

Annual Rainfall (mean 1882-1898) inches 3408 

Annual Evaporation (mean 1882-1898) do 26.10 

Temperature (mean 1882-1898) 48.01 °F. 

Wind, velocity per hour (mean 1882-1898) miles 10.4 

Humidity, percentage of saturation (mean 1882-1898) . . per cent. 73.6 

Ontario Basin. 

Area of drainage basin square miles 33,000 

Area of Lake Ontario do 7,400 

Discharge of St. Lawrence River (mean 1882-1898) s-f 248,518 

Discharge of St. Lawrence River (mean 1860-1902) .... s-f 251,930 

Annual Rainfall (mean 1882-1898) s-f 89,557 

Annual Rainfall (mean 1882-1898) inches 36.87 

Annual Evaporation (mean 1882-1898) do 23.82 

Temperature (mean 1882-1898) 44.io°F. 

Wind, velocity per hour miles 10.6 

Humidity, percentage of saturation (mean 1882-1898) . . per cent. 74.9 



* Annual Report Chief of Engineers U. S. A., 1003. 
p. 2861. 



Appendix F. F. F., 



1 68 Hydrography 

LITERATURE. 
Rivers. 
The Rivers of North America. Russell. 

Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. Humphrey & Abbot. 
The Improvement of Rivers. Thomas and Watt. Wiley & Sons. 
Tenth Census of the United States, 1880, Vols. 16 and 17 on Water Powers. 
River Hydraulics. James A. Seddon. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., October, 1899; 

also January and March, 1900. 
Hydrology of the Mississippi River. J. L. Greenleaf. Am. Jour, of Science, 

July, 1896. 
The Missouri River. Geo. S. Morrison. The School of Mines Quarterly, 

November, 1895. 
The Nile River. Indian Engineering, March 18th, 1899. 

The Missouri River. O. B. Cohn. Mineral Gazette, April 6th and 13th, 1893. 
Erosion of the River Banks of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, by J. A. 

Ackerston. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., June 1st, 1893. 
Basin and Regime of the Mississippi. C. M. Woodward. Van Nostrand's 

Eng. Mag., Vol. 27, p. 18. 
Rivers. By Edwin Easton. Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag., Vol. 19, p. 345. 
Rivers. By W. H. Wheeler. Treats of the Rivers in the Eastern and Midland 

Districts of England. Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag., Vol. 27, 281. 
Limiting Waves on Meander Belts of Rivers. Prof. M. S. W. Jefferson. Na- 
tional Geo. Mag., October, 1902. 

Transportation of Solid Matter by Rivers. 
The Suspension of Solids in Flow Water. E. H. Hooker. Trans. Am. Soc. 

C. E., August, 1806. 
Transportation of Solid Matter by Rivers. Wm. Starling. Trans. Ass'n C. E. 

of Cornell Univ., June 18th, 1896. 
Methods and Conditions of Transportation of Sediment. By Wm. Starling. 

Eng. Mag., November, 1892. 
Silt Movement of the Mississippi; Its Volume, Cause and Condition. R. E. 

McMath. Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag, Vol. 28, p. 32. 

Lakes. 

Topographic Feature of Lake Shores. Page 75, 5th Annual Report of Director 

U. S. G. S. 
Lake Fluctuation. O. Guthrie. The American Engineer, August 1st, August 

8th, August 15th, August 22nd, 1888. 
Notes About the Geology and Hydrology of the Great Lakes. P. Vedel. West. 

Soc. Eng., Vol. 1, No. 4. 
The Temperature of Lakes. Desmond FitzGerald. From Am. Soc. C. E., 

August, 1895. 
Lake Currents. W. H. Hearding. Journal Asso. Eng. Soc, 1892. 
Lake Bonneville. Gilbert. Monograph No. 1, U. S. G. S. 
Lake Lahontan. Russell. Monograph No. 11, U. S. G. S. 
The Glacial Lake Agassiz. Upham. Monograph No. 25, U. S. G. S. 
General Account of the Fresh Water Morasses of the United States. U. S. 

Shaler. 10th Annual Report U. S. G. S., p. 261. 
Geological History of Harbors. Shaler. 13th Annual Report U. S. G S., 

p. 99- 

Ocean Currents. 

Ocean Currents. James Page. Nat. Geo. Mag., April, 1902. 

Recent Discoveries Concerning the Gulf Stream. J. E. Pillsbury. Century 

Mag., February, 1892, p. 533. 
Measurement of the Velocity of Ocean Current at Great Depths. Eng. News, 

November 14th, 1885. 
Origin of the Gulf Stream and Circulation of Waters in the Gulf of Mexico. 

U. B. Sweitzer. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 40, p. 86. 
Ocean Waves and Wave Force. Theodore Cooper. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 

Vol. 36, p. 139. 
Physical Geography of the Sea. M. F. Maury. 



Hydrography of the Great Lakes. 169 

Tides. 

Atlantic Coast Tides. M. S. W. Jefferson. Nat. Geo. Mag., December, 1898. 
Tidal Instruments. Sir Wm. Thomson. Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. 65, p. 2. 
General Notes on Ocean Waves and Wave Force. Theodore Cooper. Trans. 

Am. Soc. C. E., April, 1896. 
Yearly Tides. W. S. Auchencloss. Proc. Eng. Club of Phila., Vol. IX, p. 343. 
Tidal Oscillation. L. D'Auria. Jour. Franklin Inst., Vol. 131, p. 350. 
Range of Tides in Rivers and Estuaries. E. A. Gieseler. Jour. Franklin Inst, 

Vol. 132, p. 101. 
Theory of the Tides. L. D'Auria. Jour. Fran. Inst., Vol. 123, pp. 331 and 409. 
Tide Phenomenon, Galveston, Texas. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 25, p. 543. 
Tidal Waves. Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag., September, 1884. 
Theory of and Prediction of Heights of Tides. E. A. Gieseler. Jour. Franklin 

Inst., March and October, 1883. 
Tides and Tidal Scour. Joseph Boult. Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag., Vol 28, 

p. 148. 
The Problem of the Tides. J. F. Hefford. Trans. Ass'n of C. E., Cornell 

University, June, 1896. 
Distribution of Velocity and Tidal Currents. Ann. des Ponts et Chaussees, 1898. 
Study of the Action of the Tides in the English Channel. Ann. des Ponts et 

Chaussees, 1809. 



170 



CHAPTER XII. 

HYDROMETRY. 

102. Of Flowing Water. — The measurement of flowing 
water is by no means a simple operation, especially in chan- 
nels of varying sections. In channels of uniform section there 
is a regular increase in velocity from the sides to the center 
of the stream, and from the bottom of the channel to the sur- 
face, which in each case is fairly uniform and constant. 

In natural river channels, where the cross-section is dif- 
ferent at each station, and where the banks and bottom of 
the stream differ in form and direction from point to point, 
the river flow, which in general varies in the same manner as 
the current in uniform channels, is also affected by cross and 
counter-currents and other irregularities in the flow, which 
are caused by the inequalities in the banks and bed of the 
stream. 

103. Vertical Velocity Curves. — Diagrams 36 and 37, 
which are reproduced from the report of the State Engineer 
of New York, show various mean vertical velocity curves. 
These diagrams show comparisons between the mean vertical 
velocities of streams with different classes of beds, and also 
comparative velocity curves for open and ice covered sec- 
tions.* 

For some time, the Corps of Engineers, U. S. A., have 
been engaged on hydrographic surveys of the rivers connect- 
ing and draining the Great Lakes, and some of the graphical 
records of their observations are of great interest and value 
in showing the actual variations encountered in stream meas- 
urements, which must be known and appreciated in order that 
the engineer may understand the limitations of hydrometry, 

* Report State Engineer, N. Y. Supplement, 1902. 



Vertical Velocity Curves 



171 



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Surface Fluctuations 



173 



and the errors which are liable to arise in hydrometric opera- 
tions. 

Several diagrams and maps have been reproduced from 
the report of the Engineers of the Northern and North-west- 
ern lake survey. Those selected illustrate the hydrographic 
conditions at the head of the St. Clair River. 

104. Vertical Surface Fluctuation. — Diagram 38 is a re- 
production of the graphical record of the U. S. L. S., Gauge 
No. 5, for May 17th, 1899. This gauge is located at the head 
of the St. Clair River, and the diagram shows both the nature 
of the graphical record which can be obtained from such a 
gauge, and also the fact, not ordinarily fully appreciated, that 
the surface of the moving water in a river channel has a con- 
stant vertical motion, not only from hour to hour, but literally 
from minute to minute. With the facts shown by this diagram 
fully in mind, it will be readily understood that a single set 
of observations of river flow is of little or no value as a basis 
for drawing conclusions as to maximum or minimum dis- 
charge, or for establishing, in any sense, the regime of the 
stream. 

DIAGRAM 38. 



Reproduction of Record of U. S.L.S. Gauge No. 5 for May 17, 1899. 

AT 

Hcao of SttClaih Riven. 
6 7 B 10 11 18 M M 




105. Physical Data of the St. Clair River. — Map No. 19 

is a hydrographic map of the St. Clair River, and shows the 



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176 



Hydrometry 



conditions from Lake Huron to a point some five miles south. 
The cross-sections at various intervals are shown, and the 
contours of the stream bed are given. 



DIAGRAM 39. 




Diagram 39 shows the characteristics of the St. Clair 
River from St. Clair to the discharge section. The variations 
in the elevation of the river bottom, in the area of cross-sec- 
tion and in the width of the stream, are shown. From this 
diagram and from Map 19, an understanding of the constant 
change in conditions of flow may be gained. In considering 
the data of this river, it should be understood that it is a 
river of considerable magnitude, and that the conditions en- 
countered in it are much more uniform and constant than in 
most of the smaller streams with the measurement of which 
the engineer will ordinarily be concerned. 

The discharge section for the measurement of this river 
is shown near the bottom of the map. Mr. L. C. Sabin, As- 
sistant Engineer in charge, describes this section as follows : 

"The location seeming to present the most favorable con- 
dition for discharge measurement is the reach of the river, 
about two miles in length, beginning just above the mouth 
of the Black River. This portion of the river is comparatively 



Surface Fluctuations 



77 



straight and uniform, and after a survey of the location the 
discharge section, called "dry dock," was selected, at a point 
near the foot of the reach, where the river was a trifle wider 
and shallower than above or below. The general direction 
of the river at this place is north-east to south-west, the sec- 
tion is a little over 2,100 feet in width, and as the observa- 
tions for discharge were to be taken 100 ft. apart, the section 
was divided into 21 partial areas, with a discharge section at 
the centre of each (except in case of two end areas, the width 
of which varied with the water stage)." This section is No. 
19 on Map 19, and is also shown on Diagram 40. 

DIAGRAM 40. 




Curves of Equal Velocity 
Section Dry Dock 

r. mton of O Oischorots. «?S 49-60 

Mean Water Stage • 576.6 ft. 
Mean Velocity -3.33 Itstc 



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Several recording water gauges were located on this river, 
one about 1,500 ft. above the discharge section is called Gauge 
"Dry Dock." Another self-recording gauge was located on 
the Grand Trunk Railway property, near the head of the river ; 
just below section No. 4, and is called, "G. T. R." Gauge. A 
third recording gauge was established on the lake shore, 600 
ft. above Fort Gratiot lighthouse, and is called "Lighthouse" 
Gauge. 



i 7 % 



Hydrometry 



106. Propagation of Waves. — Concerning the fluctua- 
tions in water level, Mr. Sabin says : 

"Among many examples of extreme fluctuations collected 
by the self-registering gauges, we have selected one to show 
the propagation of a wave from the lake through the outlet. 
The record of the four gauges on December 7th, 1899, are re- 
produced on Diagram 41, all drawn to the same vertical and 

DIAGRAM 4 




time scale. * * * This particular wave was caused by 
both wind and barometer. In the morning a storm of some 
intensity was centered over Duluth, and during the forenoon 
of the 7th, the water level at the foot of Lake Huron had been 
abnormally depressed by a stiff south wind, and the effect of 
the barometer gradient. The low passed the meridian of Port 
Huron about 3 p. m., causing a rearrangement of the iso bars 
over Lake Michigan, and a shift of wind from the south to the 
west. This removed the cause of the low water and in the 
reaction the water rose to about as far above normal as it had 
been below. 

"The rate of travel of the wave down stream is the point 
to which attention is called. It seems that the maximum is 
reached at G. T. R. very soon after it occurred at lighthouse, 
but the maximum at dry dock occurred about fifteen minutes 
later, while nearly an hour is required for it to reach Roberts' 
Landing. A study of this and other similar records leads to 
the conclusion that the time required for a certain fluctuation 



Fluctuations in Current Velocity 



179 



in stage at G. T. R. to be felt at dry dock is fifteen minutes. 
This corresponds to a velocity of wave of 24 feet per second. 
The theoretical velocity V= VgD, where D represents mean 
depth, would be about 31 ft. per second." 

DIAGRAM 42 



III 



>3 



Current Velocity at Section Dry Dock 

Changes in Velocity following Fluctuations in Water Level. 
June 5th, 1899. 
Meter no. IB at 0.3 depth at Sta.20. 
© @ @ ($ @- 




107. Fluctuation in Current Velocity. — On Diagram 42 
is shown the fluctuations in current velocity at section Dry 
Dock on the St. Clair River from ten o'clock to eleven o'clock 
in the forenoon, and from one o'clock to four o'clock in the 
afternoon of June 5th, 1899. There is also platted on this dia- 
gram the records of the water gauges at G. T. R. and at Dry 
Dock. 

Concerning these fluctuations, Mr. Sabin says: 
"The velocity of the stream filaments passing a fixed point 
in the cross-section seems to be ever changing. These varia- 
tions may be divided into at least two classes: first class to 
include those fluctuations having a short period but consid- 
erable aptitude, and the second class, covering the more per- 
manent changes, which may be traced to the change in stage. 



"The fluctuations in stage, with an aptitude of over one 
foot, is shown in discharge curve by an extreme variation of 



i8o 



Hydrometry 
DIAGRAM 43. 




Fluctuations in Current Velocity 



181 



DIAGRAM 44. 



Pulsations of Current at Section D^yDock" 
Simultaneous Observations at Points 50 ft apart Parallel to Current 



Catamaran No. 2. Row Boat Row Boat Catamaran NO, i 

o ® • o 

at STA.6+50 0N Sec 50 ft below Sec ioo ft below Sec. i50 ft below sec 



I I 1(9)1 I 1(0 



Time in Minutes. 




Set 5 





@IMQMI©I11©III (^1||©I11©|||©|||©|11&||| 



1 82 Hydrometry 

velocity of nearly a foot per second. This represents the 
second class fluctuation in current velocity, with the cause 
traced directly to variation in stage. 

"The first class of fluctuation does not admit of such sim- 
ple treatment. The most variable observations were those 
made on Sept. 23rd, when two catamarans, held 150 ft. apart, 
and two small boats were placed between them 50 ft. apart, 
each boat and catamaran had a meter running at the same 
depth and taking simultaneous readings at 15 sec. intervals. 
Some of the results of this work are shown on diagrams 43 
and 44. 

"In the first three sets (Diagram 43) the meters were in 
a line across the stream, and 50 ft. apart. In the second three 
sets (Diagram 44), the line of meters extended in the direc- 
tion of the current. In the first sets it is seen that two adjacent 
meters may follow each other for a time, but will soon de- 
part, when another pair will act together. This serves to bring 
out the fact that the minor fluctuations do not affect the entire 
cross-sectional line, and, in fact, that there is no synchronism 
over any large portion of it, neither can the fluctuations be 
traced with accuracy to the four positions, as would be the 
case if a wave of great extent passed across the stream diagon- 
ally. In the remaining curves taken with the meters in line 
of current, the similarity of the four curves seem to be plain, 
although a certain wave, if we may so speak of it, in the curve 
of the upper stream meter, may die out or change its form 
before reaching the last meter in the line. There are so many 
crests and troughs that may be followed through the series 
that little doubt can remain that these fluctuations travel down 
stream for some distance without much diminution in energy. 
The time required to travel 150 ft. appears to be one minute, 
giving a velocity of only about 2j4 ft. per second. As this is 
less than 1-10 of the velocity of the fluctuations of the second 
class, it points to the conclusion that the two classes are quite 
distinct, both in immediate cause and in character." 

Diagram 40, which shows a cross-section of the river at 
section Dry Dock, also shows the curves of equal velocity at 
that section. A transverse curve of mean velocities is also 



Fluctuations in Current Velocity 183 

shown. This diagram is an interesting study of the effect of 
the shape of cross-section on the velocity of flow, and illus- 
trates how irregularities in flow may be produced by rapid 
variations in cross-section. 

LITERATURE. 

Turneaure and Russell, Water Supplies, Chapter 12. 

Merriman, Treatise on Hydraulics. 

Bellasis, Hydraulics' with Tables. 

Flynn, Flow of Water in Irrigation Canals. 

Water Supply and Irrigation Papers, U. S. G. S. : 

No. 56, Method of Stream Measurement, 1901. 

No. 64, Accuracy of Stream Measurement, E. C. Murphy, 1902. 

No. 94, Hydrographic Manual of U. S. G. S., E. C. Murphy, 1904. 
Description of Some Experiments on the Flow of Water. Fteley and Stearns. 

Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 12. 
Recent Experiments on the Flow of Waters over Weirs. M. Bazin. Annals 

des Ponts et Chaussees, October, 1888; see also Proc. Eng. Club of 

Philadelphia, Vol. 7. 
Coefficients in Hydraulic Formulas. Keating. Jour. Wes. Soc. Eng., Vol. I, 

p. 190. 
Experimental Data for Flow over Broad Crest Dam. Johnson and Cooley. 

Jour. Wes. Soc. Eng., Vol. I, p. 30. 
New Formula for Calculating the Flow of Water in Pipes and Channels. Jour. 

Asso. Eng. Soc, Vol. 13, p. 295. 
Recent Hydraulic Experiments. Cunningham. Trans. Inst. C. E., Vol. 71, p. 1. 
Measurement of Water. Bui. 6, Montana Agricultural Exp. Sta., 1885. 
The Cippoletti Trapezoidal Weir. Flynn and Dyer. Trans. Am. Soc. C. E., 

Vol. 32, p. 9. 
Methods of Gauging the Discharge from Hemlock Lake. Skinner. Trans. Asso. 

C. E., Cornell University, 1898. 
Measurement and Division of Water. L. G. Carpenter. Bui. 27, State Agric. 

College, Fort Collins, Colorado. 
Annual Report Chief Eng. U. S. A., 1900. Appendix I. I. I. Survey of N. and 

N. W. Lakes. Same, 1902. Appendix E. E. E. and 1903 Appendix 

F. F. F. 



AVERA6ES FOR THE PERIOC FROM WWTER Of 147^77 TOWWTER 01 



THE ICE SEASON. 

BASIN OF THE GREAT LAKES 

AND 

SURROUNDING TERRITORY. 

LONGITUDE 70* TO 109* WEST. 
LATITUDE 37* TO 68* NORTH 

SHOWING BY YEARS AND AVERAGES THE RECORD FOR 
CHARACTERISTIC ROUTES AND REGIONS. 



explanations: 

scale 
horizontal:— oats 

»Mii ■ fir i ,"*. i rViB. faASfc. 



LOCATION 



I MOV. | DCC. | 



JAM FEB. I MAR. 



LAKE MICHIGAN, LAKE SUPERIOR AND LAKE 



SI6NS 

actuaa. ice ,-- 

last and first vessel 

official closing and opening . 

open season 

squivalent perioo ,-.... 



AUTHORITY 
Com/iHtcL ly OMUtard. Chariot J>oar* , untUr aUroclion of 
Z.Z. Coolly, CJS., from. XecoroUonUfelforotogicai Of/tc* , Jie^artmon*. 
efj^tblie TfbrHt, Dtftarimoni. ef Marine and fit) 'fries, and. Iltftart. 
mont of JZailwa&o arut Cusurf* , Dominion, of' Canada,, ttnet of -ike 
n\aiker Buretui,, Engineer Cor/** l r S.J^Zig?*t Jfous* £sta.iitLsf*mmnt, 
and. CoUo&nrs of CUttomi aft** VrUtmA /Siatts. from, Harbor Com.. 
mifsioners , JSuetsorc May CoTnjtamy ,-*~ario*ts ctocunmj-ttf , ami nriraa' 
. obtairioct. largely 6y s/ieaiat corre&fioneUnoo , and origwtalfy 
i for- o\& Commission.. 



AVERA6ES FOB THE PERIOD FROM WINTER OF 1876 



-77 TO 



WINTER OF 7895-96 INCLUSIVE. 



ROUTE BETWEEN CHICAGO AND ATLANTIC OCEAN. 



VIA ST. LAWRENCE RIVER. 



LOCATION 



PORT ARTHUR, ONT 

OVLUTH, MINN. 

SAULT STE. MARIE, MICH. 



ILL. Strwn fern.. 
STRAITS OF MACKINAC. 
ST CLAIR FLATS 
DETROIT RIVER 
MONROE, MICH. (Local) 
TOLEDO, OHIO. • 

CLEVELAND,0HI0. • 
BUFFALO, NY. » 

0SWE6O, N.Y. 
oaOENSBUR6,N.V. 
LAKE ST. FRANCIS. 
MONTREAL, PQ. 



DEC. 23 
DEC 14 
DEC* 

JAN 10 
JAN. 6 
DEC.I7 
DEC. 18 
DEC. 13 
DEC.I6 
DEC 23 
DEC 
DEC 
DEC 15 
DEC 23 
DEC 



MAY I 

APR. 2+ 
APR IS 



FEBE4 
APR.IS 
APR S 

MAR 21 

MAR. 7 
MAR .3 1 
MAR. 24 
APR 9 
APR 4 

APR e 

APR 14 
APR.IS 



JAN. FES. MAR. 



CHICAGO, ILL .Slnw ->»-<. 

milwaukee, wis. 

grand haven, mich. 

grand rapids, mich. 

green bay, wis. 

Long Tail point l.h.wis 

sherwood - - * - 

mission point l6hth5e.mich 

GREEN ISLAND, i 

min0minee light house .micw 
eagle bluff light hse .wis 
grand traverse l h,w1s. 
porte des morts lh..wis 
south fox island - - mich 
little traverse l.h.mich, 
poverty island l.h,mich. 
wag0shance l'ght h'scwcm 
esc an aba, mich, 
straits of mackinac, mi 
mackinaw city, mich. 
passage isl'd l.h., 
port arthur , ont. 
grand marais light hse.minn 
duluth.minn. 
ashland, wis. 

outer island light h'se.mich 
port a6e river - 
Sand point light house - 
marquette, mich. 

» light house.mick, 

grand isl and light h"se 
sault st e.marie . ont. 
detour lighthouse , mic 
cheboygan light house.mich 
alpena, mich, 
thunder bay light hse,mi 
stur6e0n point l.h., mich 
kincardine, ont. 
tawas light house, mich 
charity island l.h. 
saginaw rlv. ranges l hj1ic* 
port austin li6ht house ,mich 
sand beach « 
goderich.ont 
fort 6rati0t l'ght h'sejwch 
sarnia. ont. 
port huron, mich 



LAKE ST. CLAIR AND LAKE ERIE. 



ST. CLAIR FLATS L.H..LSTCLA 

WINDMILL POINT L'GHT H"SE >IK 

BELLE ISLE L.H.,L.ST CLAIR. - 

PORT DOVER, ONT. 

PORT STANLEY, ONT. 

WINDSOR, ONT. 

DETROIT R.MAMAJUOA ISL'D L STA 

MONROE, UICH RAISIN RIVER. 

T0LE00.0HI0 

SANDUSKY BAY, .CEDAR PT. 

CLEVELAND.OHiO. 

ERIE.PENN. 

8UFFALO.N Y. 



LAKE ONTARIO AND LAKE ONEIDA 



TORONTO, ONT. 
OSWEGO, N.Y. 
BELLEVILLE. ONT. 
CAPE VINCENT. N.I 
KINGSTON, ONT 
OGOENSBURG.NV 
CONSTANTIA.NY. 
BREWERTON.N.Y- 



VIA LAKE CHAMPLAIN AND HUDSON RIVER 



ST. LAWRENCE RlV.. L. CHAMPLAIN AND HUD 



LCHAMPLAIN OPP. BURLINGTON 
WHITEHALL. N.Y. 
ALBANt\ N.Y. 



L»J 63 
.6 102 
L2B 94 



VIA MOHAWK VALLEY AND HUDSON RIVER 



GEORGIAN BAY ROUTE 



LAKE ST FRANCIS, ONT 

MONTREAL, PQ. 

QUEBEC, PQ. ST. CHARLES RlV 

ROUSES POINT.NT 

L CHAMPLAIN, OPPBURLINGTON 

WHITEHALL. N.Y. 

Al BANT, N.Y. 

THE ARSENAL CENT'l PARK.HVI 



COLL INOWOOO, ONT. 
LAKE- 8IMCOE, •• 
TORONTO, ONT. 



DEC. 3 APR 24 
DEC 25 APR Zt 
DEC 21 MAR 25 



GEORGIAN BAY ROUTE. 



OTTAWA ROUTE. 

i.mwn p mti.1 wvu i m i lhii i 

fit*. NOV. 28 MAYS 

no v. is APR.ee 



.--.mil 

LAKE NIPIS8ING.ONT 
OTTAWA, ONT 



Owen souno.OnT 
collingwood.ont 

1 Al £ SIMCOt ,OWT 



YOHK FACTORY. HAYES RIVER 



KwHvfT » 



S 



DIAGRAM 46 



U 5 OC£P WATERWAY* ( 

Cttrago. November. 1886. 




1 86 



CHAPTER XIII. 

ICE INFLUENCES. 

108. Formation of Ice. — Ice is formed in natural waters 
at temperatures ranging from 32° to 28° F., depending on the 
amount of mineral matter held in solution. 

In streams and fresh water lakes where the waters are 
comparatively free from mineral matter, the waters become 
heavier as they become colder until a temperature of about 
39.2° F. is reached, beyond which the cooling of the surface 
water results in expansion and the retention of the cool water 
at the surface, after which freezing rapidly follows. 

The formation of ice, at least when the ice reaches a thick- 
ness of one foot or more, offers a serious impediment to navi- 
gation. The ice season in the basin of the Great Lakes is shown 
by Diagram 45, and the local variations of the season at 
selected localities are shown on Diagram 46.* 

109. Effects of Ice. — Ice in forming expands with great 
force, and structures built in northern waters must be de- 
signed to avoid injurious effects from this cause. 

Engineering constructions in streams must also be built 
to resist the movements of ice in the spring, when it is some- 
times carried out by floods, which give it considerable velocity, 
and consequently great force. Free water ways should also 
be provided for all streams subject to spring runs of ice; other- 
wise the ice may lodge on obstructions, damming back the 
waters and resulting in the destruction of much property by 
the overflow and by the sudden release of the impounded 
waters. 

no. Anchor Ice. — While solid ice is light enough to float, 
and remains at the water surfaces, it often happens that thin 
flakes and needles of ice, which are formed in the running 

* Report of U. S. Deep Waterway Commission, Doc. 192, 54th Congress. 



Effect of Ice on River Flow 187 

water, have nearly the specific gravity of the water. In this 
condition the ice is readily carried below the surface by even 
slight currents, and frequently causes considerable trouble, 
both to waterworks intakes and to water power plants, often 
causing inlets to be completely choked up, and the plants to 
be shut down until the ice can be removed. Such conditions 
only arise in open bodies of water and cease when the surface 
is frozen over. 

in. Effect on River Flow. — The presence of a layer of 
ice greatly modifies the river flow. The friction of flow on 
the ice sheet is approximately the same as the friction on the 
river bed. This will be seen from the vertical curve shown on 
Diagram 37. 

LITERATURE. 

Anchor Ice. Geo. H. Henshaw. Its Cause and Action in Stopping River 

Channel. Transactions Canadian Soc. C. E., Vol. I, p. 1. 
Pressure and Strength of Ice. Account of Extensive Experiments by the 

Government. Col. Wm. Ludlow. Proc. Eng. Club, Philadelphia, 

Vol. 4, No. 2, p. 93. 
Elasticity of Ice Determinations. By Prof. John Trowbridge. Am. Jour. 

Science, May, 1885. 
Strength of Ice from German Experiments. Eng. News, December 26th, 1885; 

also Proc. Inst. C. E., Vol. 82, p. 391. 
Expansion of Ice. Movement of Bridge Piers by Expanding and Contracting 

Ice. J. H. Dumbell. Canadian Soc. C. E., 1892. See also Abstract 

Eng. News, January 12th, 1893; also Eng. Record, August 6th, 1892. 
Strength of Ice. C. W. Beach, A. M. Munn, and H. E. Reeves. Technograph 

No. 9. 
Ice Shield at Buffalo Water Works. Eng. Record, April 1st, 1899. 
Expansion of Ice Compared with Steel Expansion. Eng. News, 1893, pp. 37, 41, 

94, 242, 285 and 303. 
Sustaining Power of Ice. Eng. News, 1893, p. 208. 
Tensile Strength of Ice. Eng. News, 1894, p. 285. 

Anchor Ice Stand-Pipe Failure, Marysville, Mo. Eng. News, 1893, p. 294. 
Strainers for Excluding Ice from Pipe Inlets. Eng. News, 1893, p. 309; 1895, 

P- 33- 

Contrivance for Removing Anchor Ice from Chicago Water Works Inlet. Eng. 

News, 1891, p. 622. 
Anchor Ice, Evanston, 111. Eng. News, 1895, p. 33. 
Anchor Ice at Whiting, Ind. Eng. News, 1894, 2nd Vol., p. 4. 
The Growth and Sustaining Power of Ice. P. Vedel. Jour, of the Franklin 

Inst., Vol. 140, pp. 355 and 437- 
Anchor Ice. Jour, of the New Eng. W. Wks. Ass'n, Vol. 10, No. 4, June, 1896, 

pp. 265 to 277. 
Experiments with Anchor Ice, Lawrence, Mass. Jour. New Eng. Water Wks. 

Ass'n, Vol. 10, p. 275. 
Ice, Effects on Ferry Boats. Tran. Am. Soc. M. E., Vol. 7, p. 194. 
The Ice Season in the Basin of the Great Lakes and Surrounding Territory. 

Charles Po6re, C. E. Exhibit C, p. 193, Report U. S. Deep Waterway 

Com., 1896. 
Existing Glaciers of U. S. Page 309, 5th Report, Director U. S. G. S. 
Glacier Bay and Its Glaciers. H. F. Reid. Page 421, 17th An. Report, Div. 

U. S. G. S. 
Glaciers of Mt. Rainier. G. O. Smith. Part 2, p. 341, 18th Report, Div. 

U. S. G. S. 



LOCAL VARIATIONS I 



FROM REPORT OF U.S. OCEP W 

108 



QUEBEC, P. Q. St. Cherle* River. 



ALBANY N.Y. Hudson River 



BUFFALO, fO 




MONTREAL, P. Q. 



|wvru«it| nov. 


DEC | JAH.j FEB. | MAK. 


AM*. 


MAY 


1896 -'96 
ll889-<90 

! 

1879 -feo 
1869 -'70 
1859 -'GO 
1849-50 
1839 -'40 
«29-^0 










































1809-10 
1799 -WK 

■m 

1644 -'45 
AHUH 




































w4»"*tl 








1829 
18 19 -to 



I809-'I0.. 
1608 -7 



OSWE6 




DIACRAM 46. 



SI THE ICE SEASON 

ATCR-WAY COMMISSION. 



Lake EH* 



HARTFORD, CONN. Connecticut River 



OULUTH , MINN. 




>, N.Y. 



FEB. i MAR. 1 AM. 


MAY 












m*mm 

















TURNERS 


FALLS,MASS 


Connecticut Rtv. 


wintftor 


NOV. 


DEC. I JAN. FE8. 


MAR. 


APR. 


MAY 


I895-'S6 

lees-'ee 

»I«AU 


















mmmm 


iritYV 





GRAND RAPIDS, MICH. 



ivn' v . i::-,-<i-wjipniiiTnn T rnf .i. u rn 



CHICAGO, ILL. .Streams in near vionity. 



1. Oneida Lake 




FES. MAR. I APR. 


MAY 


i 




I89S-96 


......ifmamm 








ises-'so 


- -■ ~£Z 














(869-'70 

AVIRAW 















ESC AN ABA, MICH. 





SAULT STE. MARIE , ONT 




WNTTAOF 


NOV- 


DEC. J JAN. I FEB. [ MAR. | APR. 


(MAY 


nes^e 




I ..■i.1.,. !■■!■■■ II- ■■ 




less-^so 


_ 








L 




ASHLAND , WIS 



|| .Vii:ln.f.l!|..TMB.mf PMIHTTMB'M.W^-^.MgTTTl 



wss-*e 

1889-^0 




90 



CHAPTER XIV. 

CHEMISTRY OF NATURAL WATERS. 

112. General Relations. — The high solving qualities of 
water, especially when charged with carbonic acid gas, has 
made water an active agent in the gradation of the strata. 
The removal of the soluble salts from the rocks, with which 
the water comes in contact, destroys their integrity and re- 
sults in their disintegration. 

As a result of solution and disintegration, all waters are 
charged with soluble or suspended matter, derived from the 
material which they have met in their course from the clouds 
to the sea. Soluble matter is acquired by water, not in the 
proportion that it exists in the strata, but more nearly in pro- 
portion to the solubility of the salts. The matter carried in 
suspension by moving water varies in its character with its 
relative specific gravity, and the velocity of the current. (See 
Section 21.) 

113. Analyses of Rocks and Rock Waters. — The analyses 
of various rock formations of the upper Mississippi Valley are 
shown in Table 39, and from these analyses can be inferred the 
nature of at least some of the salts which must be contained 
in the water flowing through or from such strata. 

The analyses of some of the rock waters, obtained from 
various Geological Strata in the upper Mississippi Valley, are 
shown in Tables 40 to 43. A comparison of these analyses 
with those of Table 39 will render the relations between the 
strata and the strata water apparent. 



Analyses of Rocks 



191 



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Chemistry of Natural Waters 





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196 Chemistry of Natural Waters 

114. Seasonal Variation. — Surface waters, derived par- 
tially from surface flows and partially from ground water 
which has flowed perhaps only a short distance through the 
strata, are usually more free from mineral matter than the 
deep ground waters. In the springtime the flow of streams 
is derived more largely from melted snows and surface flows, 
and is at such times more free from mineral matter than dur- 
ing times of low water. During low water the flow is derived 
entirely from the ground water. 

All surface waters have also a seasonal variation in the 
organic matter which they contain. This variation is as marked 
as that of the mineral matter contained in them. 

115. Deep Waters. — Deep and artesian waters are 
usually charged more highly with mineral matter than those 
obtained from the more superficial deposits. The distance a 
water flows through the strata, which is also a measure of 
the length of time which it has been in contact with the salts 
of the strata, will also indicate in a general way the relative 
amounts of salts which will be found in the water. In this 
connection note the increase in the amounts of mineral mat- 
ter, in waters obtained from the potsdam strata, as the dis- 
tance from the outcrop increases. This is shown by the 
analyses of the waters at Rockford, Monmouth, and Jersey- 
ville, Illinois, as shown in Table 42. 

116. Organic Matter. — River waters, which have fallen 
on populous districts and on fertilized agricultural land, or 
which have received the sewage of municipalities, are some- 
times highly charged with organic matter, and its accompany- 
ing bacterial life. Such waters sometimes contain the specific 
germs of certain forms of disease, and if used, without purifica- 
tion, for dietetic purposes, may reproduce similar diseases in 
those using it. 

When water is to be used for the purpose of a public water 
supply, or for manufacturing purposes, it is often necessary 
to have examinations made to determine the nature and 
amount of the matter it may contain. The extent of these 
analyses depends on the use to which the water is to be put, 
and, to some extent, on its natural history. These analyses 
usually include one or more of the following: 



Organic Matter 197 

First. An analysis of the mineral residue, showing the 
amounts and character of the mineral matter contained in the 
water. 

Second. A sanitary or organic analysis showing the 
amounts of certain products or accompaniments of organic 
matter. 

Third. A bacterial examination, to determine the relative 
number of bacteria present and often to determine their char- 
acter. 

Fourth. A microscopic examination to identify the micro- 
scopic organisms present. 

The results of sanitary analyses and bacterial counts are 
indicative only and must always be interpreted in the light of 
the natural history of the water itself. 

LITERATURE. 

Mineral Analyses of Waters. 
Mineral Waters, Ark. Geo. Survey, Vol. 1. 
Mineral Waters, Missouri Geo. Survey, Vol. 3. 

American River Waters, Monograph 11, U. S. G. S., Lake Lehoutan, Table A. 
American Spring Waters, Ibid, Table B. 
Inclosed Lake Waters, Ibid, Table C. 
Waters of Yellowstone Nat. Park, Bui. 47, U. S. G. S. 
Bulletin No. 24, Wyoming Experimental Station, August, 1895. 
Chemical Analyses and Water Contents of Wyoming Soils. Bulletin No. 35, 

Wyoming Experimental Station, 1897. 
Analyses. Waters of New Jersey. Geo. Survey, N. J., Vol. 3, "Water Supply," 

p. 299. 
The River Irrigating Waters of Arizona. Bulletin No. 44, Arizona Agricultural 

Experiment Station, University of Arizona, Tucson, 1901. 
The Underground Waters of Arizona, their Character and Use. Bulletin No. 

246, Agric. Experimental Sta., University of Arizona, 1903. 
Wells, Streams and Lakes in Red River Valley. Pages 536-545, Monograph No. 

25, U. S. G. S., Glacial Lake Agassiz. Upham. 
Mineral Springs of the U. S. Bulletin No. 32, U. S. G. S., Washington, 1886. 
Soils and Waters of the Upper Rio Grande and Pecos Valley in Texas. Bulletin 

No. 12, Geo. Survey of Texas. H. H. Harrington. 1890. 

Sanitary Analyses of Waters. 

Sanitary Investigations of the Illinois Rivers and Tributaries. Illinois State 

Board of Health, 1901. 
Sanitary Investigations of the Illinois, Mississippi and Missouri Rivers. Illinois 

State Board of Health, 1901-1902. 
Chemical Survey of the Water Supplies of Illinois. Preliminary Report. A. W. 

Palmer. 1897. 
Chemical Survey of the Waters of Illinois. Report of the Years 1897- 1902. 

Palmer. 

Sanitary and Biological Examination of Water. 

Waters of New Jersey. N. J. Geo. Survey, Vol. 3, "Water Supply," p. 299. 
Air, Water and Food. Richards & Woodman. John Wiley & Sons. 
Water Supply, Chemical and Sanitary. Mason. John Wiley & Sons. 



198 Chemistry of Natural Waters 

Examination of Water for Sanitary and Technical Purposes. Henry Leffman. 
P. Blackstone, Sons & Co. 

Micro-organisms in Water. Percy & G. C. Franklin. Longleys & Co. 

Microscopy of Drinking Waters. Whipple. Wiley & Sons. 

Examination of Water. Mason. Wiley & Sons. 

Chemistry of Water Supply. A. W. Palmer. Illinois Society of Engineers and 
Surveyors, 1898. 

Methods for the Determining of Color, and the Relation Of Color to the Char- 
acter of Water. F. S. Holton. Journal of the New England Water 
Works Ass'n, December, 1898. 

The Analyses of Potable Water. C. W. Folkard. Page 57, Vol. 68, Institute 
of Civil Engineers, Part 2. 

Analytical Examination of Water Samples from West Superior, Wis. Reprints 
from Official Report. 

Origin of the Appearance, Taste, and Odors Affecting the Brooklyn Water 
Supply. A. R. Leeds. American Water Works Ass'n, 1897. 

Progress in Biological Water Analyses. W. T. Sedgwick. Journal New Eng- 
land Water Works Ass'n, p. 50, Vol. 4. 

How to Study the Biology of a Water Supply. Geo. W. Rafter. Reprint from 
Paper before Section of Microscopy, Rochester Academy of Science. 

On the Use of the Microscope in Determining the Sanitary Value of Potable 
Water. Geo. W. Rafter. Bulletin of the Section of Microscopy. 
Rochester Academy of Science, 1886. 

Biological Examination of the Mohawk River, Schenectady, N. Y. C. E. Brown. 
Report February 20th, 1893. 

Analyses of Water, Chemical, Microscopical and Biological. T. M. Brown. 
Journal of the New England Water Works Ass'n, p. 79, Vol. 4. 

Biological Examination of Water. W. T. Sedgwick. Journal of the New 
England Water Works Ass'n, p. 7, Vol. 2. 

Bacteria and Other Organisms in Water, with Discussion. John W. Hill. 
Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 33, p. 423. 

Sanitary Examination of Drinking Water. Edmund R. Angell. 3rd Annual 
Report, New Hampshire State Board of Health. 

Microscopic Analyses of Water. Scientific American Supplement, 1883. 

Biological Study of Water. Scientific American Supplement, September, 1885. 

Test for Purity of Drinking Water. Francis Wyatt. Engineering and Mining 
Journal, August 12th, 1893. 

Ammonia and Nitric Acid in Rain Waters, Collected at the Agricultural College. 
G. H. Failyer. Kansas City Academy of Science, 22nd Annual Meet- 
ing, 1890. 

Potable Water. C. W. Folkard. "Van Nostrund's Scientific Series No. 101. 

Microscopical Examination of Potable Water. Geo. W. Rafter. Van Nos- 
trund's Scientific Series No. 103. 

Water and Public Health. Fuertes. John Wiley & Sons. 

Drinking Water and Ice Supplies. Prudden. G. P. Putnam & Sons. 

Water Analyses. Wanklyn. Keegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. 

Water Analyses. McDonald. J. & A. Churchill. 

Water Bacteriology. 

Elements of Water Bacteriology. Prescott & Winslow. John Wiley & Sons. 
The Story of the Bacteria. Prudden. G. P. Putnam & Sons. 
Bacteria and Their Products. Sims Woodhead. Charles Scribner's Sons. 
Principles of Bacteriology. Abbott. Lee Bros. & Co. 
Bacteriology. Sternberg. 

Bacteriology, Floating Matter of the Air in Relation to Putrefaction and Infec- 
tion. Tyndall. D. Appleton & Co. 
Microbes Des Eaux. Victor Despeignes. J. B. Bailliere et Fils, Paris, 1891. 



199 



CHAPTER XV. 

APPLIED HYDROLOGY. 

117. Application. — In the application of the principles 
of hydrology to practical purposes, the nature and extent of 
the data needed and consequently of the investigations which 
it is necessary to undertake, varies in accordance with the pur- 
pose in view. In the following outlines, the principal factors 
to be considered are shown and the hydrological data on which 
they depend are briefly indicated. 

118. Water Supply. — 

A. Investigation of Sources (Physiography and 

Hydrogeology). 

a. Quantity; sufficient with or without pond- 

age. (Rainfall, run off, evaporation 
and seepage.) 

b. Quality; suitable with or without treatment. 

(Sanitary protection, softening, filtration, 
storage.) 

B. Methods of Development. 

a. Surface Water (sanitary protection). 

Dams and Reservoirs (geology, seepage, 

evaporation). 
Inlets (floods, ice). 

b. Subsurface Water (sanitary protection). 

Open wells, drive wells, infiltration gal- 
leries, storage (geology). 

c. Deep Water (geology). 

Springs and artesian flows. 
Deep wells and pumping. 



200 Applied Hydrology 

Shaft, tunnels and wells. 
Storage. 

C. Head for Distribution (relation of energy). 

a. Gravity (conduits). 

b. Direct pumping (machinery). 

c. Pumping to reservoir. 

D. Distribution. (Hydraulic.) 

a. Pipe system. 

b. Valves, hydrants and services. 

c. Control of delivery meters. 

119. Water Power. 

A. Source (hydrography). 

a. Great Lakes. 

b. Streams. 

c. Springs and artesian wells (rare). 

B. Quantity (rainfall, run off, evaporation). 

a. Average flow and variations. 

b. Minimum flow. 

c. Maximum flow. 

C. ' Head ; amount of head and influence of maxi- 
mum flow on head. 

E. Development. 

a. Dams and spillways (geology and run off). 

b. Head and tail races. 

c. Power plant and auxiliaries. 

d. Transmission. 

120. Irrigation. 

A. Source of supply (hydro-geology). 

a. Quantity; sufficient with or without pond- 

age. 

b. Quality; suitable for agricultural purposes. 

B. Methods of Development. 

(See Water Supply.) 

C. Head for Distribution. 

a. Gravity. 

b. Pumping (machinery). 

D. Distribution (evaporation, seepage). 

a. Canals, flumes and ditches. 

b. Modules or measuring devices. 



Sewerage and Drainage 20 1 

121. Agricultural Drainage (Rainfall, run-off). 

A. Subsoil drainage. 

Drains, ditches, outlets. 

B. Surface drainage. 

a. Extent of drainage area. 

b. Rainfall and run off. 

c. Outlet, gravity, pumping. 

d. Canals and ditches. 

122. Flood Protection (Run-off). 

A. Height and nature of floods. 

B. Dikes and levees. 

C. Interior drainage. 

123. Municipal Sewerage and Drainage. 

A. Systems; combined, separate, mixed. 

B. Extent of area and population. 

C. Topography; grades. 

D. Quantity. 

a. Storm water (rainfall and run off). 

b. Sewage. 

E. Disposal. 

a. Directly to streams ; gravity, pumping. 

b. Treatment. 

F. Conduits and appurtenances. 

124. Transportation and Navigation. 

A. Canals. 

a. Route (geology and topography). 

b. Water supply. 

Source (rainfall, run-off and evaporation). 
Quantity needed (lockage, seepage, evapo- 
ration and waste). 

c. Works 

Excavation and embankments. 
Aqueducts and culverts. 
Dams and waste weirs. 
Locks, gates and valves. 

B. River Improvements. 

a. Stream flow (rainfall, run off, variations). 

b. Reservoirs. 



2o2 Applied Hydrology 

c. Dredging. 

d. Dams; fixed and movable. 

e. Locks ; gates and controlling works. 
C. Harbors (currents, tides and waves). 

a. Breakwater. 

b. Dredging. 

c. Docks. 

LITERATURE. 

Water Supply. 

Turneaure & Russell, Potable Water Supplies. Wiley & Sons. 

Fanning, Hydraulics and. Water Supply Engineering. Van Nostrand. 

Folwell, Water Supply Engineering. Wiley & Sons. 

Goodell, Water Works for Cities and Towns. Engineering Record. 

Burton, The Water Supply of Towns. Crosby, Lockwood & Son. 

Turner & Brightmore, Water Works Engineering. E. & F. N. Spor. 

Freeman, Report on New York's Water Supply. 

Schuyler, Reservoirs. Wiley & Sons. 

Hill, Public Water Supplies. Van Nostrand. 

Hazen, The Filtration of Public Water Supplies. Wiley & Sons.' 

La Coux, Industrial Uses of Water. Van Nostrand. 

Mason, Water Supply (from a Sanitary Standpoint). Wiley & Sons. 

Gould, Elements of Water Supply Engineering. Eng. News. 

Fuester, Water and Public Health. 

Water Power. 

Frizell, Water Power. Wiley & Sons. 

Marks, Hydraulic Power Engineering. Van Nostrand. 

Robinson Hydraulic Power and Hydraulic Machinery. Griffen & Co. 

Bodmer, Hydraulic Motors. Van Nostrand. 

Wegman, The Design and Construction of Dams. Wiley & Sons. 

Irrigation. 

Wilson, Manual of Irrigation Engineering. Wiley & Sons. 

Newell, Irrigation in the United States. Crowell & Co. 

Mead, Irrigation Institutions. Macmillan Co. 

Canals and Irrigation in Foreign Countries. Special Consular Report. 

Drainage and Sewerage. 

Folwell, Design, Construction and Maintenance of Sewerage Systems. Wiley 

& Sons. 
Ogden, Sewer Design. Wiley & Sons. 
Elliott, Engineering for Land Drainage. Wiley & Sons. 
Ridal, Sewage and Bacterial Purification of Sewage. Wiley & Sons. 
Baumeister, Cleaning and Sewerage of Cities. Van Nostrand. 

Improvements of Waterways, Etc. 

Thomas & Watt, The Improvement of Rivers. Wiley & Sons. 

Cunningham, Dock Engineering. Lippincott Co. 

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